





MEMOIRS 

AND 




MEMOEANDA. 



^ ‘i 







MEMOIRS AND MEMORANDA 



CHIEFLY BOTANICAL. 


. BY 

DAVID PRAIN. 


Reprints from Periodicals, 1887-1893. 


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CALCUTTA: 

PRINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, 





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CONTENTS. 

[The references are to the numbers at the outer bottom corners of the pages.] 


Pages 

I. The Angami I^Tagas ... ... ... . 1_24 

\Pevue Coloniale Internationale, v, 472-494 ; (1887_ 

revised 1890).] 

II. The non-indigenous species op the Andaman Flora 25 _ 51 

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lix, pt. 2, 

235-261; (1890).] 

III. A LIST OF Diamond Island plants . 53_75 

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lix, pt. 2, 

272-294; (1890).] 

IV. The hot springs of the ISTamba Forest in the Sib- 

SAGAR DISTRICT, IJPPER AsSAM . 77_gQ 

[Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for August, 

1887, 201-204; (1887).] 

V. On the present condition op Barren Island ... 81 _ 84 

[Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for May 

1891,84-87; (1891).] 

VI. On an hndescribed Oriental species op Nepeta (Plate) 85_87 

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lx, pt. 2, 

204-206; (1891).] 

VII. Teratological effects produced on Acacia ebubnea 

BY BdClEIUM ESCULENTUM (Plate). 87 89 

[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, v, 

165-167; (1890).] 

VIIT. Note on Lo-eao, the Chinese Green-Dye, yielded 

BY VARIOUS SPECIES OF BhAMNES . 89 _ 92 

[Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society 
of India, n. s. viii, 278-281 ; (1888).] 

IX. The Vegetation op the Coco Group ... ... ... 9,3 

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, lx, pt. 2, 

283-406; (1891).] 

X. On a botanical visit to Little Andaman and the 

Nicobars . 216—235 

[Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for De¬ 
cember, 1891, 156-175, (1891).] 




VI 


Contents. 


Pages 

XI, Remarks on the Fauna op Xarcondam and Barren 

Island .. ... 235—247 

[^Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for April 

1892, I09-I2I; (1892).] 

XII. On the Synonymy op Antsocoma flavuscjews Zoll..,. 247—250 
[Annals of Botany, vi, 22, 214-217 ; (1892).] 

XIII. Two SPECIES OP Pfdiculaeis (two Plates). 250—252 

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Ixii, pt. 2, 

7-9; (1893).] 

XIV. On the Flora op Xarcondam and Barren Island 

(Two Maps). 253—300 

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Ixii, pt. 2, 

39-86 ; (1893).] 

XV. Botany op the Laccadives ... ... ... ... 301—389 

[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, vii, 

268-295; (1892): vii, 460-486; (1893): viii, 

57-87; (1893).] 

XVI. Directions for drying specimens op plants for a 

Herbarium ... ... ... ... ... ... 391—400 

[“ Asian ” xxviii, Xo. 401, 194-195 ; (1892).] 

XVII. Note on some methods op preparing botanical 

SPECIMENS . ... ... ... 401—'405 

[Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Ixii, pt. 2, 

153—157; (189.3).] 



NEW SPECIES AND VARIETIES DESCRIBED. 

n • ... Pages 

Dapparis sepiaria, Linn, var. grandifolia Kurz.,. ... 59 

Nepeta Bellevii, Train ... ,,, ^ ^ gg 

Xylaria clavarioides, Jfassee,,. ... 

Pedicularis diffusa, Prain ... ... 250 

Pedicularis flaccida, Pram ... ... ... 251 

Amorphophallus rex, Pram... ... ... ... *'* 293 

Pleurotus cuneatus, Massee ... ... ... ... 370 














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THE 


ANGAMI NAGAS. 

REPRINTED FEOM THE 

Cffkniak Internationak, 

VoL. V; pt. 6 ; pp. 472-494 : 


December, 1887. 

( Revised, September iSgo.) 


NAGAS 


THE ANGAMI 

BY 

DAVID PRAIN. 


A mountain range occupying the space between 93° and 96° 30' E. Lon. 
and 25“ 13' and 27° 18' N. Lat., runs N. E. and S. W. between the 
Brahmaputra and the Chindwin, and separates Assam from Burma. This, 
east of the 95° meridian forms the Palkoi, west of that line, the Bareil 
mountains. 

The eastern portion probably resembles the western, which consists of 
metamorphic rocks below with tertiary formations above. The older rocks 
are much contorted clay-shales, schists, and gneiss, on which unconform- 
ably reposes a vast thickness of soft sand-stones and tertiary clays. The 
newer formations dip S. E. and with a gradual rise of base from the 93° 
meridian, culminate at 94 ° 8' E. I.on. and 25° 34' N. Lat. in Japvo, 
“ father of waters,” 9890 feet high. The mean elevation around is 8500 
feet ; to the East the average height is under 6000 feet, some peaks reach- 
ing 7500 feet. The clay-shales and schists rise 5000 feet as narrow water- 
worn ridges crested with villages and tilled along their slopes between the 
levels of 3000 and 5000 feet. Above and below this zone the country is 
an unbroken forest. 

The climate is agreeable. The cold weather, Oct.—Feb., at first is 
very pleasant. After November mists rise from the valley of Assam, and 
between 10 and ii a. m., the temperature daily falls about 8° C. in 
consequence. By night the mists dissolve and hoarfrost forms. Rain¬ 
storms occur in January ; the temperature then may be 4° C. or less at 
5000 feet, with sometimes snow at 6000 feet. The hot weather, Mar.— 
June, is not severe. In March and April daily gales blow from the S. W. ; 
these cease at night. The rains begin in June. After the first outburst 
they are moderate, only 74 inches falling annually. The nights are usually 


2 



473 


clear, the sky at sunrise cloudless, and the Bhutan snows, 175 miles west, 
distinctly visible. After sunrise cumulus forms on the hill-tops, extending 
westward peak by peak till by noon all are clouded and rain begins. It 
may however rain constantly for several days; and, especially after thun¬ 
derstorms, several days may pass without rain. In September the rains 
cease, and then false sunsets, with the afterglows in the eastern sky and 
rays of coloured light converging to the East, are frequent phenomena. 

The tribes of this region are members of the Tibeto-Burman family. 
They speak languages belonging sometimes to separate groups of this 
family, and which, even when of the same group, are so distinct, that 
natives of villages but twenty miles apart can only communicate through 
an interpreter. The dialects in different villages where the same language 
is spoken may vary so widely as to render intercourse difficult^). The 
name Naga \naked (Assamess)^ is applied to all; those of the Patkoi range 
being the Abor \remote (AssameseJ\ Nagas ; the latter name Abor, or Bor- 
abor —very remote^ is given also to another group of tribes in the hills 
which connect the Patkoi with the Himalaya. The Nagas have no ende¬ 
mic collective race-name. The independent tribes of the Patkoi and 
Eastern Bareil are little known, the Western Bareil is peopled by several 
tribes, the Angami, Regma, Serna, Lhota, Arung,—under British rule ; the 
Kachha—partly British, partly subject to the protected kingdom of Mani¬ 
pur ; the Tangkal,—under Manipur. 

The most important and warlike tribe is the Angami, which furnishes 
40,000 of the total 95,000 at which the British Naga population is esti- 
mated^). It has no general tradition of origin. Villages have mostly 
sprung from older ones ; where a community forgets this the parent one 
may refresh its memory. Thus Konoma village says that its neighbour 
Mozama was originally one of its clans expelled for unruliness, owing its 
name to the fact, from themuze, murder. Those villages near the higher 
hills are largest, owing their power to position, and their wealth to the 
plunder of weaker neighbours. They are perhaps the oldest, for in some 
of them special traditions linger. It is believed in Kohima, that long 

1 ) Stewart; Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. xxiv, p. 658(1855) gives an 
Angami vocabulary. Dalton.- Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal, p. 71 et seq. (1872) 
.copies this. McCabe : Grammar and vocab. of the Angami Naga Lang. (1887) has 
given it again from original observation. Hence the writer only gives the few Naga 
words needed to render the text clear. 

2 ) Hunter ; Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. x, p. 147, and edit. 1886, says 35,000. 


3 





474 


ago the Angami, seeking a home, had consulted omens often but in vain. 
Finding at length a favourable site, they called it Kohi, “ turning”, from 
their wanderings—hence their name^). This village, now the seat of the 
British government, is one of the largest. It consists of seven clans and 
contains 900 houses. The Angami estimate a village by its houses, though 
a house may contain several families. A house averages four to five indi¬ 
viduals ; altogether Kohima contains about 4000 Nagas. Few villages are 
so large, 300 houses making a large village; many contain but 30 to 40 
houses, and on the lower spurs near the plains often no more than ten. 
They have little history. Perhaps they once paid tribute to Manipur. A 
carved monolith near Kohima is still termed “the Manipur stone.” It 
bears the symbols of the sun, and the sacred bull, with an inscription 
round these. On a flat slab at its base is the carved imprint of two human 
feet. On the Basama, a spur high above the sites of villages, some ruined 
walls are said by the Asamese to be the remains of a Burmese occupation 
fort. Their appearance does not bear this out; the Angami explanation 
too, is the common-place one that a clan of Mozama, at feud with the rest 
of the village, temporarily retired to this spot. 

Whatever was their attitude to former rulers of Assam, the British 
found them raiding annually on the plains. They first came in contact 
with Europeans in 18322); between then and 1851 ten expeditions had to 
be sent against them. Government was desirous of establishing political 
control over the tribes, not of subduing them, but as raiding still took 
place,—twenty raids occurring between 1851 and 1866—a station was 
established within the hills in 18672). This was intended as a point 
whence raiding could be checked, and as a base for survey operations. No 
more raids took place towards Assam, but on several occasions survey 
parties were attacked and, oftener than once, more or less completely cut 
off. This and renewed raiding into Cachar, to the S. W., led in 1878 to 
another expedition and the establishment of the British station in the midst 
of the strongest villages. Next year, however, the British magistrate was 
killed, and a final expedition—the twelfth—was sent against the Angamis^). 
After some hard fighting this ended, in 1880, in the subjection and 

1 ) The termination -ma in proper names means man, inhabitant. 

2 ) Butler : Travels & Adventures in Assam, (London 1855) p. 102. This is the 
first work in which the Angami Nagas are described from personal observation. 

3 ) Hunter : Imp. Gazetteer of India, loc. cit. 

4 ) Hunter: Imp. Gazetteer of India, loc. cit. 


4 



475 

disarming of the whole tribe, which has since been directly under British 
rule. 

The race is bronze-coloured, with coarse black hair, hazel eyes, 
prominent cheek-bones, and rather flat noses, especially the women ; men 
have often quite straight noses. The eyes are not always oblique, nor is 
the hair always straight; the chin is narrow but rather prominent. 
Beards are uncommon, consisting when present of straggling hairs along 
the cheeks and under the chin. The average height of men is 1.58 
metre; of women 1.45 riietre. The limbs are lithe and muscular; the 
genitals are undersized; the mammae globular and, even in old women, 
but slightly pendulous. During menstruation, which begins early, the 
ordinary avocations are pursued and sexual intercourse is permitted. 
Micturition is performed by both sexes standing. They are strong and 
active, running with agility up as well as down hills. Eyesight and hear¬ 
ing are keen ; the voice is clear and musical. They do not bear weights 
on the shoulder, but carry heavy burdens on their backs, supporting the 
load by a band across the forehead. A man’s load is 61 lbs. avoirdupois, 
a woman’s 50 lbs. This they carry 20 miles a day for many days. But 
V'hen choosing their own loads, many men take 90 Bbs. some even no lbs. 
and will carry this 35 miles in one day. Girls of twelve will carry 30 to 
40 Bbs. a whole day, and after a march of twenty miles, lay down their loads 
and at once set off home. When climbing hills the feet are turned in, 
the large toe being pressed into the ground to prevent slipping. When 
marching with loads, they emit a ho ho; a clear flute like note which 
appears to relieve their distress; if a considerable party be at work 
this is done in unison, producing a far-reaching sound which has a pleasing 
effect. They have considerable capacity for music with a good idea of 
time. Among themselves many musical calls and hollas are in use, and 
bugle calls are readily and correctly imitated by whistling. 

Their chief occupations are cultivation and the keeping of cattle. But 
they are expert hunters also, and, where the streams are large, take quantities 
offish. They are likewise good traders. Formerly the larger villages made 
plunder a regular occupation. Now they find it more profitable to work for 
government. The young practise leaping and kindred sports in special 
places near their village, but much of their spare time is spent in feasting. 

The Angami dress is a blue cotton kilt i metre long, 
wound on from left to right so that the free end is at the right 
side. Girls adopt this about eight, boys about fourteen; the former 


5 


476 


wear it plain though sometimes it has red borders—the depth of 
the hilt being .5 metre; the latter wear a narrower kilt, one 
third of a metre deep, ornamented by three horizontal rows of 
cowries, except on the part in front which is overlapped; where it over- 
lies the trochanters also, cowries are omitted. This plain underpart 
is pulled close to the right thigh by means of a string attached to 
the lower corner and fixed to the upper border behind. There is worn 
besides, a white cloth of cotton or nettle-fibre with narrow red and 
blue borders, or with black stripes. This is 1.75 metre long, i metre wide. 
It is thrown loosely over the shoulder, or if the wearer be actively em¬ 
ployed is bound firmly on. Men sometimes discard it when at work, but 
women always wear it tightly bound over the mammae. Above this is 
worn another cloth, the same in size, but coloured ; usually it is blue with 
particoloured borders and fringes, distinctive of different groups of villages. 
Many men wear leggings of finely plaited cane, so padded with cotton as 
to make the shin bulge equally with the calf: these are never removed. 
Bands of narrow canes dyed black are worn between the knee and the 
calf. When a youth comes of age he puts one or two conch shells on his 
neck and dons armlets of brass or ivory or, if he cannot get these, of 
plaited cane. These ornaments are meant to ward off blows. After slay¬ 
ing an enemy he wears round his neck strings of cowries, or of cornelian 
beads, interspersed with locks of hair. When many foes have fallen by 
his hand, he wears on his breast an oblong frame of neatly plaited cane 
ornamented with rows of cowries and locks of his victims’ hair. The 
great ambition is to possess these; women treat undecorated suitors with 
scorn : once gained they are always worn. The desire to gain these in¬ 
signia led formerly to much bloodshed. Brass ornaments,—huge rings or 
coils of wire—are worn in the ears, and when their favorite flowers. Orchids 
and Alpinias, are not in bloom, tufts of coloured cotton are placed beside 
the rings. Warriors often replace the rings by wild-boar tusks, ornamented 
with elytra of beetles and locks of dyed hair. The women are less 
ornamented than the men ; still, they wear ear-rings and armlets of brass, 
and cornelian necklaces, placing bright flowers and tufts of dyed cotton 
in their ears, like the men. The hair of children is closely cropped; one 
tuft is left on a boy’s head, nothing on a girl’s. The boy’s hair may grow 
when he reaches puberty, the girl’s when she is no longer a virgin. Women 
bind the hair loosely behind ; men wear it long and loose, or bound 
in a queue; or cut in various patterns by way of decoration. 


6 


477 


The style of hair is sometimes, but not always, distinctive of different 
villages; a good deal of individuality is displayed in the matter. 

Angami villages occupy the crests of ridges usually at an elevation of 
about 5000 feet. They are strongly fortified by stone walls, and ditches are 
cut if need be to check attacks along the ridge. Stone outworks and mono¬ 
liths to screen defenders guard all the approaches, which consist of paths 
led directly up the spurs and present great natural difficulties. The easiest 
ascent to the fortress of Konoma, for instance, is that from the valley to 
the west, and it consists of an unbroken staircase with 912 steps. Close 
to the villages the paths are converted into covered ways by hedges of 
prickly spurge^) ; the walls themselves are screened by a tangled jungle, 
the basis of which is a violent stinging nettle^) and a prickly palm^). The 
passages through the walls are along ditches 2' metres in depth, guarded 
by great doors, each a single plank, ornamented with rude reliefs of the 
heads of buffaloes and men, the latter rendered more realistic from having 
two rows of teeth taken from slain enemies. Sentries are always on guard 
here by night ; if the village be at feud, or if epidemics are raging in the 
hills, by day also. In time of war the paths for miles are studded with 
pitfalls and bristle with “ pangies,”—small bamboo stakes, with ends 
sharpened and hardened by fire, stuck in the grass beside the narrow path 
and sloped to receive on the point the foot of an advancing enemy, on 
whom they inflict disabling and often dangerous wounds. These village 
sites are always strong against direct attacks, but often capable of being 
turned, and usually commanded by some neighbouring height. Most 
communities contain several clans, inhabiting distinct parts of the village 
separated by deep ditches, along which sentries are placed during civil 
fends, or when epidemics prevail in the village. The houses are not, as 
with many Tibeto-Burman tribes, raised on platforms. The walls are huge 
wooden planks, the ridge-pole and rafters, small trees ; the thatch, grass 
and bamboo. For security against the April gales the eaves almost reach 
the ground. All the parts are bound together with canes. Sometimes the 
houses are placed in two irregular rows, the street between being the 
common receptacle of the village filth ; usually they are placed anyhow,- 
one end abutting on the hill while the entrance is by the other. Houses 


1 ) Euphorbia antiquorum. 

2 ) Girardinia heterophylla. 

3 ) Plectocomia assamica. 


7 




Cy 


478 

are often 12 metres long by 6 wide, the ridge-pole being 2 metres from the 
ground in front but much less behind. A fenced courtyard 6 metres 
square is situated in front of each house. Houses are divided into two 
rooms, an inner and an outer. The inner, which is the common sleeping 
apartment and in which the weapons are kept, is furnished with solid 
wooden bedsteads, shaped in section like a Greek tt the whole hewn from 
a single tree. These often exceed 1.5 metre in width, and stand over half 
a metre from the floor, occupying lengthways a side of the room. The outer 
is the sitting and store room. In the midst is the fire where cooking is done, 
and round which wooden benches are placed; grain baskets are ranged 
along one side, a beer-tub stands in a corner opposite. Dogs, pigs, and 
fowls have free access from the courtyard where the cattle are penned at 
night and into which all refuse is thrown. The house is only approached 
through this yard which is so dirty that stepping stones are necessary in 
order to cross it dry-shod. The houses of the chief men of a village 
are distinguished from the rest by the beams of the rafter over the 
entrance not meeting under the eaves like a Greeks, but extending beyond 
like a Greek K \ the free arms projecting above the thatch are rudely 
carved to resemble buffalo-horns. 

The weapons used are the “dhao” or handbill, with spear and shields. 
A bamboo-tube or “chunga” full of “pangies” is also carried. The “dhao,” 
which is likewise the main industrial implement, is heavy, square at the 
end, and sharpened, like a chisel, with one bevel. It has a short wooden 
handle, and is worn, without a sheath^ in a wooden frog at the back. The 
other weapons are of two kinds, plaih ^nd decorated ;—the one for use, 
the other for show. When on an expedition a couple of spears, two 
metres long, are carried. The heads are 0.25 metre long, of thin iron 
with sharpened edges and unbarbed. The shafts are plain and shod with 
pointed spikes to balance the weapon. A similar spear, but only one 
metre long and with a smaller head and spike, is used by women and old 
men in climbing hills. The shield is an oblong framework of split canes, 
strengthened behind by a board. It is 1.15 metre high by 0.5 metre 
wide. The “chunga” for “pangies” is simply a joint of a large bamboo. 
One spear is thrown, the other retained for use, with the “dhao,” at close 
quarters. Spear-wounds seem to heal easily as compared with those 
caused by the sharp pointed “pangies” which are carried in order to 
stud the path and retard the enemy during the retirement of an 
attacking party. At festivals each warrior carries a spear with a head 


8 


479 


0.5 metre long, like a broad two edged sword and with five or six barbs on' 
each side. To balance this the shaft is shod with a heavy iron spike about 
as long. The shaft itself is about a metre in length, and adorned, some¬ 
times with plaited cane, but oftener with alternate bands of red and black 
hair. The holiday shield is as the fighting one, but covered in front with 
tiger or bear skin ; when these cannot be had, a row of human masks,- 
made of black hair, are inwoven down the centre. The top is adorned at 
the corners with wooden horns and there is a spike in the middle, all 
three decked with locks of hair. Along one side are hung as many 
bunches of hornbill’s feathers as the bearer has slain of his enemies. At 
the same time the warrior wears in hi-s hair a hornbill’s feather for each 
foe he has killed. The “pangi-chunga” is also ornamented with locks of 
hair, and instead of being a mere bamboo-tube, is often a curved piece of 
wood worn behind like a tail. Great eagerness is shewn to possess guns, 
and the Angami having obtained a considerable supply by way .of Manipur 
gave much trouble to the attacking forces during the later expeditions 
against them. Now only a limited number are allowed to carry muskets, 
which are used with some skill in hunting. In cultivating a hoe, a short 
rake, and a rude sickle are used. The hoe which is much like that used in 
the plains has a heavy iron head, fixed, owing to the steepness of their 
fields, at an unusually acute angle to the short wooden handle. Poorer 
villagers use a light hoe of thin iron with bent ends attached to canes, these 
being bound together form a shaft. The rake is a piece of bamboo, one 
end of which is divided to a joint into several slips ; these, turned down at 
right angles to the shaft, kept in position by canes and trimmed to one 
length form the teeth. The sickle is not in common use; it is a thin piece 
of iron with a short wooden handle. During the rains men wear broad- 
brimmed peaked hats and waterproof coats. Women carry food and imple¬ 
ments to and from the fields in baskets, and instead of hats wear triangular 
rainshields, which rest at once on the head and the basket, protecting 
both from the wet. The baskets, like other burdens, are supported from 
the forehead by bands of plaited grass, as broad as the palm of the hand, 
attached at their extremities to grass ropes which are tied beneath the 
burden. The hats, rain shields, and baskets consist of a double 
frame-work of cane with dry plantain leaves between. The water¬ 
proofs are nets of woven sedge; each blade has one end free; the 
free ends are all to the side that is worn outwards and form an impervious 
thatch. For jungle work, besides the “ dhao”, a hatchet is used. 


9 


480 


This has a shaft' 0.75 metre long, perforated in the thicker end by a 
square hole into which an iron head is set; according to the plane in 
which the edge of this is placed the instrument becomes an adze or 
an axe. The baskets for storing grain are like those already described, 
but are often as much as two metres deep, and are frequently plastered 
over with mud. They are annually renewed, as old baskets spoil the grain. 

Each village is a commune : if an Angami be asked who was his over- 
lord before the British came he plants his spear in front of the questioner 
and points to that. Still certain headmen are selected for their wisdom in 
council, their skill in debate, their courage in the field; these guide the 
village deliberations, speak for it to outsiders, lead it in war ; at the same 
time whoever has amassed means enough to feast the whole village at 
one time, becomes a headman, and may adorn his house, as a selected 
headman does, with horns above the entrance. The position is honourable, 
but carries np more than a personal authority. Though sons may succeed 
their fathers, or indeed may share the position, for it is not confined to 
any age, it is in no way hereditary, nor is it necessarily held for life. De^ 
cisions are made by the whole village in council, often in opposition to the 
opinion of the headmen. These meetings are held on stone platforms in 
open parts of the village. Every clan has one of these for the old men, 
another for the young, and the two sets do not mix, at least in the prelim¬ 
inary discussions. The platforms have huge fires in the centre during the 
cold weather ; the elders have their platform on the highest part of the 
ridge. The decision of the elders is rarely questioned in land disputes or 
petty disagreements; in questions of policy, however, the headstrong 
views of warriors thirsting for distinction often prevail over wiser counsels. 
But it is a point of honour with dissentients to acquiesce, and share the 
fortunes while disapproving the policy of their village. A leader who has 
used every argument against an undertaking, may be implicitly trusted 
to conduct it, and this confidence he will not betray. Still no obstacle is 
put in the way of any one retiring to another village if he refuses to commit 
himself to the action of his own. This want Of government leads to few 
disturbances; offences against the community are restrained by fines paid 
in feasts to the village or clan at the delinquent’s expense, while those 
against individual honor are checked by the dread of revenge. 
Insult or adultery can only be expiated by the offender’s blood, 
and this at once establishes a vendetta. Villages in this way get 
involved in endless feuds, which, beginning in enmity between 

lo 


families, embroil clan with clan in the same or in separate villages, in the 
last case at length plunging the two villages into hostilities. During sl. 
civil feud the women of the rival parties may communicate freely while 
the men are taking every opportunity of attacking or surprising their 
opponents. But in feuds between villages the most dastardly deeds are 
done ; the murder of a woman in a field, of a boy herding cattle, of a girl 
bathing at a spring, counts as much to the warrior’s credit as the conquest 
of a worthy foe. During such feuds regular expeditions are organized; 
The warriors assemble in arms, and with food for several days, consult 
the omens, and set off. Where resistance is expected a careful and stealthy 
approach is made, and a surprise attack, if possible, delivered just before 
day break, when the enemy are most likely to be off their guard. If the 
village attacked be weak, as is usual when mere plunder is the object, it is 
entered by day. Though weak villages were formerly exposed to attacks 
from every more powerful neighbour, yet it was only in the last extremity 
that the site was abandoned for a safer. Sometimes a number of warriors 
may enter a village as friends and fall on its inhabitants, when overcome 
after the feast with which they have entertained their guests. In any case 
they rush through the village, firing the houses and spearing the people as 
they escape from the flames. Little blood is shed really; every one who 
plunges his spear into a body while life remains may count the victim’s 
head to his score, so that the pursuit of an enemy in the jungle is less 
attractive than the plunder of his village. Usually only those who fall in 
the first rush are killed, their heads, hands, and feet are carried off as 
trophies ; unwounded prisoners who do not resist are taken away with the 
rest of the plunder as slaves ; if they resist their heads are at once taken. 
On the return of the expedition the heads are on view during five days, 
after which they are buried and a feast is held. The ransom of heads 
and captives is a point of honour among the Angamis i). The Nagas 
of the Eastern Bareil on the other hand store the heads of victims in a 
village dead-house set apart for the purpose. Among them heads 
can only be recovered by a successful counter attack 2). Another 
custom to which the Angami are less prone than their eastern 
neighbours is that of waylaying an inoffensive traveller for the 


1 ) Butler; loc. cit. p. 156. All this is now, fortunately, to be spoken of m the 
>) Peal: in “Papers relating to Hill Tracts bet. Assam & Burmah (1873) p. 325 - 





482 


sake of placing his head and hands and feet in their fields to ensure 
a more abundant harvest®). The fate of slaves is not hard. They are 
made to work, but not harder than the women of the village in which 
they are captives. Two forms of mimic warfare are practised. There 
is the w'ar-dance in which warriors, in full festival panoply, review, with 
realistic war-cries, every circumstance of defence and attack. This has 
the effect of inflaming undecorated youths to sally forth and win the 
“cordons” and “garters” of warriors. The stonethrowing and fisticuff 
festivals held at certain seasons are on the other hand excellent outlets 
for their pent up martial ardour. During these, rival parties assemble 
outside the village and attack each other fiercely with fists and teeth. 
Sometimes stones may be thrown, but all w'eapons are debarred, and the 
severest blows bestowed on an opponent are rarely taken into account and 
never lead to subsequent feuds^). The warcry used is a shrill Mh, hilh ; 
not to be confounded with the ho, ho already described, from which it 
differs in being articulate. Both sexes join in slow figure-dances—com¬ 
memorative of love-episodes. Onlookers sing bars before and clap hands 
after each figure. Women dance by themselves a lively quickstep. 

Hunting is a universal occupation. The forests contain deer and 
wild pig ; on the higher hills are found bears and telu ,—a ruminant akin 
to the “serao” but peculiar to the Bareil range. These are usually 
pursued by hunting parties, though those who have muskets sometimes 
go out alone or in pairs. They have a tall fierce breed of dogs with short 
erect ears and usually of a black and white colour. Men are often severely 
injured and sometimes killed outright by the bears. Tigers and leopards 
from the lower valleys at certain seasons carry off cattle or even kill men. 
Then a blood-feud is declared ; armed warriors beat the jungle systematic¬ 
ally till the animal is discovered and surrounded. The ring of spears con¬ 
verges : though more than one may succumb when the tiger tries to force 
the circle no one flinches and the animal rarely escapes. All try to spear it, 
fot its head counts only less than a man’s ; hence good skins cannot 
be had. The birds taken are pheasant, partridge and woodcock, also the 
hornbill for the sake of its feathers. A large rat is also eagerly sought. 


1 ) Butler :/(3c. cit. p. 157. 

2 ) Stewart: Jour. Asiat Soc. of Bengal loc. cit. 

S) Capricornis bubalina : a rare ruminant of the N. W. Himalaya. For an account 
of its habits see Adams : Wanderings of a naturalist in India p. 220. The Bareil serao 
is rather larger a,nd is. red, , Its habits are identical with those of its western congener. 

^#3 


Si 



483 


Game is oftener trapped than hunted however. The commonest trap 
consists of two parallel fences which vary in height, strength and distance 
apart with the animal to be caught. Two longitudinal weighted beams 
rest on cross supports between the fences near the top. The supports 
are retained by strings of bark looped over a peg that projects into the 
path below. Traps for birds or rodents are baited with grain, those for 
Felidae with fowls or flesh, and set in places likely to be visited. For deer 
they are placed where tracks pass along narrow ridges or ledges of rock, 
the jungle being obstructed for a considerable distance before the trap 
is reached to ensure the animal taking only the path that passes through 
it. The least touch deranges the mechanism, and the victim is crushed 
by the falling beams. Pitfalls, two metres deep and one metre across, 
neatly covered with decaying branches and grass, are common. The 
earth removed to make these is carried some distance to obviate suspicion 
on the part of the game. They may be simple pits, or be studded with 
“pangies” often so closely set that the animal’s feet must be transfixed and 
it too severely disabled to escape in the event of its struggling out. Nearer 
the plains, the pits are made so large that buffaloes and even elephants 
are captured. To snare birds gins of hair are used ; those for wood¬ 
cock are set along the streams where they feed, those for pheasants 
in a circle round a “decoy” placed in an open part of the jungle. Rats 
are simply dug out. An innocent looking creeper lying on the path may, 
if disturbed, relax a huge bamboo which catapults a couple of spears 
across the path. Should a man upset the mechanism one spear passes 
in front and one behind him ; a deer, touching it with either pair of feet, 
no matter in what direction it is going, must be transfixed by one spear. 
It is said that fish are poisoned and the juice of a prickly spurge is 
indicated as the substance used^). But the practice seems to be uncom¬ 
mon. Generally the fish are trapped. A stream is forced by a series 
of weirs into a succession of “races” ; where these debouch into the 
lower pool, long bamboo cages are made to project the direction of the 
“race.” The fish frightened by waders from the pool above into the race 
are forced by its current into the cage where they remain while the water 
escapes through its bars. When sufficiently filled the water is turned 
aside and the cage removed. 


1 ) Euphorbia antiquorum was shewn to the writer as the plant yielding their fish 
poison. They did not use it on any occasion in his presence. 

.^3 




484 


They cultivate partly by irrigation, partly by “jhum.” For the first 
the hill-side is terraced for hundreds of feet; the height and breadth of 
terrace vary with the slope ; the necessary water-channels are skilfully 
engineered, often along the face of steep cliffs and across narrow ravines. 
In the valleys near the central range immense detrital deposits occur ; the 
angularity of the component blocks and their proximity to their source 
seem to mark these as denudative ; at the same time the size of the 
boulders, and especially the facies of the whole, almost leave it an open 
question whether they are not glaciaU). Where these exist the stones are 
used to revet the terraces and miles of hill side may be seen so retained 
through 1000 feet of elevation, each wall averaging a metre in height 
while few terraces are as much as two metres wide. The skill and labour 
implied it is hard to estimate justly. But revetment is no necessary 
feature ; in valleys where there is no deposit the retaining walls are only 
earth. The “jhums” are mainly grass lands formerly cultivated. Virgin 
forest is not extensively cleared for new cultivation because the whole 
zone which they care to till has already been absorbed. In no case does 
the Angami commit the wanton destruction done by so many similar tribes. 
He is restrained mainly by his fixity of abode and by the soil which he 
does till being fairly good. The part to be cropped is cleared in spring 
by the “dhao”—when the jungle is dry it is fired. Not being virgin forest 
there are no tall trees in their “jhums”, but certain kinds,—notably an 
alder 2)_are left as pollards to yield firewood. The irrigated land is tilled 
from year to year ; “jhums” on the contrary are usually only cropped for 
two seasons, then allowed to rest for several years. Cultivation is a public 
duty. At intervals of about seven years the village decides to let a whole 
section lie fallow for a season. This obviates the necessity of repairing 
the irrigation system which supplies a set of fields for the sake of a few. 
Any one however may choose to leave his fields untilled for one year 
and cannot be compelled to grow his crops during the next, but after that, 
if illness or idleness prevent him from overtaking the work, his village insists 
on the fields being let. Should the owner be contumacious the village 
council sells the fields for what they will bring and hands him the price. 

It is usual in cases of illness for the owner to ask his friends 

1) See Godwin-Austen : Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. XLIV, p. 52 (1875), p. 209, 
and Oldham ; Memoirs of Geol. Survey of India, vol, XIX (1883), art. 4, for a full 
account of the opposing theories. 

3) Alnus nepalensU, 


M 




4^5 


to plant his crops for him; when the work is over he entertains 
them with a feast. The fields close to the village are naturally 
the richest; their owners can grow more rice than they require, 
and therefore usually let a portion. At times they let the whole 
and take exclusively to trading. The rents are paid mainly in rice. During 
the rains an Angami family usually lives in a temporary hut beside its fields 
which are often miles from village. The principal rice crop is grown on 
the irrigated ground; on the “jhum” an inferior early rice, maize, and 
Job’s tears are the chief crops. Among these are scattered plants of a 
labiate grown for the sake of its oily leaves and seeds. Cotton is only 
grown on the lower ranges near the plains. Colocasia, chillies, cucumbers, 
gourds and of late years potatoes, are grown near the hut, while the soy¬ 
bean 5) is cultivated close by. The boys spend their time scaring 
birds : scarecrows too stud the fields. Of these there are many kinds, but 
the most artistic is a framework of cane over which is drawn a Naga cloth 
with leggings hung at a proper distance below, and some black cloth at the 
top for a scalp. There is no mask, but the ear tufts are present and, 
catching the eye from afar, make the simulacrum hard to distinguish from 
a man. The pigs and cattle accompany their owners to the fields, but are 
kept out of the crops by fences of felled trees and “pangis”. The pigs are 
black, very dirty feeders—as are fowls, which resemble jungle-fowl and lay 
a small but well-flavoured egg. When the pigs are taken to and from the 
fields they are not driven; their legs are tied together and their snouts 
bound with canes, after which they are deported in the field-baskets. 
Similarly fowls are brought for sale woven each into a wide-meshed cane 
frame inside which it cannot move. The heads alone emerge through the 
wicker; when the dealer stops to trade he empties his basketful of fowls 
on the path where they roll about like so many balls, and scatters a hand¬ 
ful of rice for them to pick till the bargain is concluded. Ducks are not 
kept. Very few possess buffaloes ; the cattle usually kept belong to a 
small duncoloured sleek haired breed with flesh of good flavour, but yield¬ 
ing no milk. Milk is considered by the Angami to be excreraentitious. 
The udders of this breed are small and after the calves are weaned 
speedily resume their original size. The animals are timid with 


1 ) Coix lachryma. 

3 ) Perilla ocimoides. 
*) Glycine hirsuta. 


15 




486 


strangers but docile with their herds, each one responding to a name. 
They are driven in the morning to feed on the grass lands, and the boys 
who tend them, assemble their charge at dusk by a sort of vocal ranz de 
vache. During the rains they are sheltered at night in leaf-thatched huts 
near the fields, for if exposed to the wet constantly they become affected by 
a severe mange. At other seasons they are taken at night to the village. 
The grain is husked and winnowed in the fields, and then carried home for 
storage in the large grain baskets. When the last of the crop is housed 
the family with its live-stock returns to the village. Quantities of fire¬ 
wood are now collected, mainly from the pollard alders; but some is 
brought from the higher forests, while close to each village there is a con¬ 
siderable jungle reserve in the cultivation zone, to be drawn upon in cases 
of emergency. 

Thatching-grass is obtained from the old “jhums.’ Building materials 
come from the virgin forests where huge trees are felled by “dhaos” with 
the assistance of fire ; each tree yields but a single adze-trimmed plank. 
These great planks are dragged to the village by large companies; small 
trees are employed as rollers in difficult places, but leverage is not made 
use of. When climbing trees sometimes footholds are notched, sometimes 
pegs of bamboo are driven into the stem. Wild honey is got from the 
jungle by smoking the bees out of their nests ; many fruits, such as figs, 
mulberries, citrons, apples; several potherbs, especially a Polygonum and 
Houttuynia. The unopened buds of a Bauhinia are much used, and 
several kinds of mushrooms are collected both for their own use and for 
sale. The villagers on the lower spurs grow oranges, limes, and sweet 
limes. 

Intercourse between different villages is not free. Much of the 
country is a dense and difficult jungle, infested with leeches and similar 
pests, and the paths are little more than animal tracks utilized. There 
are the usual risks from wild animals and snakes, of which there are 
some poisonous kinds, with the additional dangers of hunting traps 
and pitfalls. Added to this is the tendency to waylay a stranger 
for the sake of his head. Village paths lead over spurs, rarely along 
them, and never round the head of a stream. But the Angami 
knows the value of a level road and shews this by abandoning the old 
tracks for the roads made by government. He shews too by his watercourses 
that he could make a good road himself. But he prefers a steep ascent, 
he argues that an easy path makes his home too accessible. He can bridge 

i6 


487 


streams too by trees or canes supported on the cantilever principle. In 
spite of this isolation however the Angami are keen traders. Among 
themselves they traffic in cotton, rice, fowls, cloth ; to the plains they take 
cotton and nettle cloth, ivory, wax; these they exchange for salt, shells, 
brass, and iron, and, if they can obtain them, gunpowder and muskets. 
The difficulties of communication are partly overcome by a curious hospb 
tial system. The Angami of one village finds in every other at least one 
house in which he will obtain shelter and food, and be safe from any sud¬ 
den murderous impulse. Between his village and this house there exists a 
kind of “guest-friendship." And as natives of A are ‘guest friends’ to one 
house in B, so are natives of B ‘guest-friends’ to one or more houses in A. 
Other houses in both villages have similar and reciprocal relations with C, 
or D, or E,—with all the villages around. No feud, however bitter, admits 
of the complete violation of this relationship. In their dealings they do not 
chaflfer; a price, usually fair, is named as what they will take or give, and 
the bargain is concluded or abandoned at once. They use no measures or 
weights of their own, but are adopting the Indian ones along with Indian 
currency. They count beyond 100 and have a word for 1000. They 
have no name for gold or copper, but use an expression for silver, whose 
purchasing powers they realize. Their old currency was of shells and 
brass, though iron was their great desire and its possession the chief index 
of wealth. In some of the neighbouring tribes to the east it forms still, 
in the shape of thin slips, singly or in bundles, a medium of exchange. 

The home-life of the Angami is quiet and peaceable. The women 
do all the household work, carry water—often a very laborious occupa¬ 
tion—and weave. The men sit about on the stones or on wooden plat¬ 
forms beside their houses, nursing the children or doing nothing, gossiping 
with neighbours and drinking. The national beverage is termed dzu, 
(literally, water); it is made from pounded Coix, is whitish and, 
as offered to strangers, of a thin consistence and with a sub-acid taste. 
It is refreshing and very slightly intoxicant. This kind is carried about 
in bottle gourds, A thicker variety, a food rather than a beverage, is 
eaten with the aid of a stick out of a buffalo-horn by the well-to-do; out of 
a bamboo “chunga” by their poorer neighbours. Besides this, rice pounded 
by a stone on a wooden platter, sodden, and mixed with stewed or roasted 
flesh is the staple food. Pig, cows, fowls, deer yield the flesh, but 
hardly any thing comes amiss. Dogs, cats, rats, squirrels, owls, lizards, 
frogs, fish, land-crabs are all eaten, nor does the Angami palate relish 

17 

c 




488 


them less if decomposition has set in. And yet there are some cm ions 
restrictions. Only dogs with erect ears—may be eaten, lop eared 
dogs — venaft\h — are not touched. Cats may be eaten, but a penalty is 
involved in their purchase. Tiger may not be eaten by the general com 
munity, but a family on whom one may have inflicted loss must partake 
of its flesh as part of their revenge. 

Household utensils are mainly tubes of bamboo in which the 
flesh is stewed or sodden. It may also be subjected to a rude 
roasting. The most recherche dish is a dog, kept for several days 
without food, then permitted to gorge itself on a full meal of rice. 
When sufficiently “stuffed” it is killed, cooked, and eaten entire. When 
fire is required it is obtained by the friction of a pointed piece of bam¬ 
boo in a hole in another piece. The heat produced sets fire to some 
scrapings of bamboo placed on the edge of the hole. Water is heated 
either by dropping hot stones into it, or by placing the vessel, a bamboo 
lube, directly in the fire. Cotton brought from the lower hills is spun into 
yarn' by a single stick, and woven into cloth on a moveable loom, which 
when used is fixed by one end to a stake, by the other to the worker’s waist. 
Yarns are dyed by “rhum", the product of a Strobilanthes, from blue 
to rusty black; by a madder, from brick red to brown, or yellow 
by a turmeric. The blue colour seems the principal one used by those 
tribes which communicate exclusively with Assam — the Regmas, 
the Lhotas and the Sernas. The Tangkal and other tribes which only 
come in contact with Manipur wear cloths that are mainly red or brown. 
The Angami who are more centrally situated, have blue as their chief 
colour but have borders of yellow and red and fringes of yellow, red, 
and even green. They are acquainted with tobacco but do not grow it. The 
prepared leaf is eagerly eaten ; a cheroot, if lit for them, is awkwardly 
smoked, and soon goes out; what remains is devoured. In the nearly 
related Regma tribe, smoking is habitual on the part of the women, the 
juices being collected in a bamboo cup fixed underneath the bowl of the 
pipe. When full this cup is removed and carried by the men, who do not 
smoke but who exchange sips from it on meeting neighbours.^). 

Religion hardly exists. The sun, moon, and stars which move 

1) This custom prevails among the Kukis, a tribe settled in North Cachar. It also 
exists among the Lushais, who now occupy the country, from which these Kukis were 
displaced. For an account of the custom among the Lushais see Woodthorpe : The 
Lushai Expedition, 1871—72, (Lond. 1S73), p. 77- 

18 




489 


across the sky come from durhoma ; to this the moon returns every 
month. The notion of a future existence occasionally appears to exist. 
It does not however seem to be indigenous. The more intelligent Angami 
if questioned gives a decidedly agnostic reply on this point, usually there 
is not much trace of the conception. There are spirits— niedovt —benefi¬ 
cent and the reverse which take a concern in mundane affairs. Some 
attention is bestowed on these from utilitarian motives. Good spirits, 
naturally favourable, need no homage : the others are propitiated to ward 
off prospective evils ; misfortunes which have happened and are beyond 
remedy provoke however an attitude of defiance—revenge is so axiomatic 
to the Angami that a feud is declared even against the unseen. Obser¬ 
vances of all kinds, compulsory or voluntary, seasonal or incidental have 
one general name, genna. This implies a period of rest, during which 
no food prepared by women can be eaten, and is followed by a feast which 
is great in proportion to the length of the fast. This is imposed on the 
individual who violates communal customs : at the same time a person 
may of his own accord undertake a genna of abstinence or silence. A 
general great genna of three days marks the first full moon of the year, 
which is a lunar one. Great gennas are held when the rice crop is to 
be planted or reaped ; lesser ones mark the sowing and gathering of the 
other crops. The parents of a new born child, the family of a man being 
married, the clan in which a person dies, hold genna : if the deceased be 
a headman the whole village is involved. A genna precedes an expedition ; 
another marks its termination. Stone throwing and fisticuff gennas have 
been already alluded to : others are held if illness or accident befall 
people or cattle. Lastly it is genna to do certain things, that is, genna 
would be imposed on the delinquent as a penalty. Gennas are dis¬ 
tinguished by no special rites, yet they vary in importance, duration, and 
extent. The people involved kill fowls, pigs, or cattle, offer the refuse parts 
to perverse demons, give the less select pieces to outsiders, and use the 
choice portions themselves. The usual hospitality cannot be shown ; 
during general genna strangers may not enter the village; in special genna 
outsiders are excluded from the houses involved. 

No secret rites exist to explain this ; the Angami say that were 
strangers admitted during genna they would have an unfair advan¬ 
tage over men gorged with food and overcome by liquor. But a 
curious code of fictions is observed which enables them to evade 
these restrictions to some extent. Officers and sepoys in the 


19 


490 

■discharge of their duties cannot be excluded—they are said to be more 
than mortal and therefore do not count. A friend returned from a 
journey, or a trader guest cannot be entertained at a house in genna—a 
show of resistance made to his taking what he requires is sufficient to 
obviate any violation. It is genna to eat a lop eared dog ;—if its ears be 
first cut-short, it may be eaten so soon as they are healed. The buying 
or selling of a cat involves genna—if the animal is spoken of as a/?«// 
throughout the transaction, no penalty is incurred. VVhen however a 
genna'^is really violated it begins de novo. The Angami are for all this 
naturally a truthful race : simple truth is highly regarded. It is rare for 
a statement to be made on oath, rarer still for it to be false. Indeed 
when such a statement is made, it is Angami ‘‘good manners” to pretend 
to believe it even when palpably untrue. Oaths are taken in a striking 
manner ; a fowl is pulled asunder by the parties engaged to betoken what 
it is wished may happen to them if they fail of truth ; or a weapon is 
placed between the teeth to shew that a violent death is invoked if the 
engagement be not fulfilled. On such occasions stones of witness are 
sometimes set up. These are monoliths like those set up for defence 
along the approaches to a village. Similar monoliths are placed at the 
head of a warrior’s tomb. They are merely large blocks from the detrital 
deposit in the valleys, dragged up with great labour by companies of men 
to the positions they occupy. They are primarily defensive, for while 
villages with few inhabitants, or whose valleys contain no deposit, have 
brought stones considerable distances to set up on their paths, they are 
content with rudely carved wooden posts as monumental pillars for 
tombs. They salute each other verbally only. Those who have travelled 
to the plains greet Europeans with a rude salaam; well known faces 
elicit Aposaha “my father sahib”, and the delight is great if in 
return they are addressed “my friend.” The salaam, such as it is, must not 
be confounded with the habit, especially common in women, of raising 
that hand nearer the stranger and peeping at him under the arched 
palm as he passes. This is done to prevent the consequences of 
‘evil-eye’, which all Europeans are considered to possess. They are 
childishly inquisitive; every new ‘Sahib’ is closely examined to see if 
he too be really white all over ; his belongings are keenly commented 
on. Gifts afford great pleasure, a common formula of thanks being 
“the Sahib has made me his son”. Their curiosity and love of 
presents combined lead to petty pilfering. They are not however 


20 


491 


prone to robbery. Their trust in Europeans where they can see, though 
unable to comprehend, is great; but a lively incredulity is expressed 
towards any statement that is beyond their comprehension and is not 
immediately demonstrable. Omens are sought before every undertaking; 
the flights of birds is occasionally consulted, but usually the augury is 
from the fall of the pieces of a reed placed with one end on the path to 
be taken and sliced longitudinally with a dhao. If both pieces fall to one 
side the path is open and the omen favourable; otherwise, it is barred 
and the undertaking must fail. If an expedition meets a deer en route it 
is at once abandoned ; the cry of the barking deer at night similarly puts 
a stop to a surprise attack. 

No special preparation is made for the lying-in of women, who go 
about their work till close on confinement, which occasionally takes place 
in the fields. The labour is not generally severe ; yet, owing perhaps' 
to the hard work they perform, Angami women are by no means 
prolific. The parents are in genna for a day ; after that fowls are killed 
and the family feasts. Children are kindly treated and are nursed by 
both parents ; indeed the fathers often stay at home to nurse, while the 
wives are sent afield. The Angami say, that this custom has arisen from 
the precautions necessary during civil feuds. When they get older the 
boys help in the fields, or tend the cattle, the girls do field and household 
work. A pleasing trait among them is the presence of little corners, with 
five or six rice plants in each, among the irrigated lands, -“children’s fields”. 
Among the young almost unrestricted sexual intercourse prevails. Girls 
consider short hair, the symbol of virginity, a disgrace, and are anxious to 
become entitled to wear it long ; men are desirous before marriage to 
have proof that their wives will not be barren. In consequence of this, 
female children are offered to strangers for small sums ; such females are 
more highly valued than their neighbours on returning to their homes. To 
check this promiscuous intercourse there are however in some villages two 
common sleeping houses, consisting of a single room as much as 30 metres 
long, in one of which the girls, in the other the boys of the village spend 
the night^). This arrangement is the customary one among the Arung 
and other neighbouring tribes. Sometimes an Angami village has one 
such house for the boys, the girls sleeping in the houses of their parents. 

1 ) See Peal : Jour. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, vol. Hi, pt. 2 (1883), p. 16, 17, as to the 
existence of this custom among the eastern Naga tribes ; much variety seems to prevail 
in different tribes. The text describes the state of matters among the Angami only. 


21 




492 


More often no such provision is made for keeping the sexes apart. 
This youthful licentiousness never ends in marriage, and the children of this 
period, who for some reason are not numerous, are the property of the 
father. Chastity begins with marriage; conjugal infidelity, though not 
altogether unknown, is exceedingly rare. Marriages are exogamic: though 
clans sometimes intermarry, wives are preferred from a neighbouring 
village in which a similar pattern of upper cloth is worn. The choice 
lies mainly with the woman who judges by “thews and sinews” and by 
decorations. The younger men complain bitterly that the British, by 
stopping their raids and so preventing them from gaining marks of distinc¬ 
tion, have made it impossible for them to get wives. The accepted bride¬ 
groom gives, according to his means, a present to the bride’s parents. 
Having previously collected materials for a house, his friends build it 
while he observes a genna; at the close all partake of a feast of fowls and 
pigs at his expense. Widows and women who have been divorced do not 
return to their own village, but live in houses by themselves and may 
marry again. During sickness the family holds a genna ; a fowl is killed; 
the head and feet are offered to the medovi; the legs and neck are given 
to friends; the rest is eaten at home. When the medovi are satisfied the 
illness passes off. If the patient dies the clan is involved in genna for 
a day in the case of a woman, and two days in the case of a man. If a 
headman dies the whole village is implicated and the genna lasts three 
days. A feast of fowls, pigs or cattle, according to the position of the 
deceased, is then given by the relatives to the clan or the village, after 
which the body is buried. At the obsequies of a warrior the men wear 
all their decorations, and when the grave is closed warcries are raised 
and spears brandished, and the cowardly spirits who have killed their 
friend are challenged to show themselves and fight. Over graves they 
erect oblong stone tombs, those in memory of warriors are often a metre 
in height. Upon the tombs are placed the apparel, ornaments, and 
implements of the deceased—the man’s handbill and hoe, the woman’s 
loom and spindle. At the head of a man’s grave are placed his spear and 
shield—the witnesses of his prowess ; at the head of a woman’s are 
stuck the skulls of pigs and cattle—the tokens of her hospitality. While 
the other things are ultimately removed, the skulls and weapons remain till 
they decay, it being genna to remove them. A warrior’s tomb is carefully 
preserved by his immediate generation. It is marked by pillars of stone or 
wood, protected by a railing, and adorned at intervals with flowers. More 


22 


493 


striking still is their treatment of the tombs of foes who have 
fallen near their village, on which as much care is sometimes bestowed 
as on those of their own warriors. 

The prevalent diseases depend on want of cleanliness, on local 
conditions, and on epidemics. Like most hill-tribes they are infested 
with parasites. The eczemas and ringworms which result they treat by 
bathing in hot springs, which they often travel many miles to visit. 
Fever and dysentery are not uncommon; mainly in the cold weather, 
and owing to chills. At this season they say they cannot sleep at night 
but sit huddled round their fires till sunrise. When the stones outside 
their houses are warmed by the sun, they sleep on these till the mists shut 
out his rays. If caught in the jungle by the winter rainstorms they 
sometimes succumb to exposure; those who have goitre appear to die 
more readily. Goitre is comparatively infrequent in those villages whose 
watersupply filters primarily through the tertiary formations, but is more 
common in villages where the water used drains entirely from metamor- 
phic rocks. Epidemics of chicken-pox and measles sometimes prevail, but 
are counted trifling. Should however small-pox or cholera break out in 
a village the news rapidly spreads and no one from the infected village 
is permitted to enter another. The clans not yet affected compel those 
in which cases have occurred to leave the village at once. The families 
so driven out spread themselves abroad among their fields. When a 
certain time has elapsed and no new case has appeared the clan may 
return. If the disease appears in a new clan that also disperses, and in 
bad epidemics the whole village goes to the fields. The neighouring 
villages maintain a quarantine against the infected community, sometimes 
as long as a year and a half, and enforce it as rigorously in the case of 
an epidemic among cattle as when men are affected. Beyond genna the 
Angami know of no remedy nor will they submit to any. They are particu¬ 
larly averse to vaccination, although some of the neighbouring tribes submit 
to it readily. When an epidemic is thoroughly established and several 
deaths have occurred the men of the village go in a body to the jungle and 
liberate there a living fowl. The disease it is hoped will be committed to 
the bird and so conveyed away from the community. A severe form of 
ulcer known to the natives of the plains as “Naga sore” frequently occurs. 
When a case appears in a village others are certain to result; slight 
injuries, such as abrasions or pricks of skin in the jungle, developing into 
similar open angry rodent sores. As they have no treatment the patient 


23 


494 


usually dies ultimately of exhaustion. Villages have been known to be 
decimated by this scourge. Venereal ailments are common ; the moral 
code of their early years tends largely to their propagation. They admit 
a long acquaintance with gonorrhoea but insist that syphilis is an accom¬ 
paniment of the British government. Since however they are of the 
same opinion as regards cholera, which is known to have prevailed among 
them long before the advent of the British, they may be mistaken in this 
respect also. Specific eruptions and other secondary manifestations are, it 
must be admitted however, more common in the villages which come 
most in contact with sepoys, and the ravages they commit are such as 
would be expected in a race newly inoculated with the virus. 


— NOTE. — 

The Angami Nagas have already been described by the following 
authors; — Butler; (son of the officer whose work is referred to in 
foot-notes) Jour. As. Soc. Beng. 1875. Woodthorpe ; Jour. 

Anth. Inst. GK Brit. 6^ Ir. vol. XI. They have also been incidentally 
referred to in the latter periodical by Peal : — vol. Ill; Godwin 
Austen ; — vol. IV; and Watt ; — vol. XVI. 

These publications were not accessible at the time the notes which 
constitute the paper were being arranged. 


24 


CALCUTTA ; 

Printed by Ujibica Cbaran Shome, at the New Bbitanaia Press, 
78, Amherst Street. 



From the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LIX, Part II, No. 3 , 

1890 . 


Natural History Notes from H. M.'s Indian Marine Survey 
Steamer “ Investigator,” Commander R. F. Hosktn, R. N., Com¬ 
manding — No. 16 . The non-indigenous species of the Andaman 
Flora.—By D. Prain. 

[Received 28th February 1890; Read 2iid April 1890.] 

The non-indigenous element in a flora—the weeds of cultivation 
and the cultivated plants—species introduced, involuntarily or inten¬ 
tionally, by man—is not often dealt with apart, since weeds are rarely in 
themselves interesting, and because a local treatment is hardly satis¬ 
factory where cultivated forms are concerned. But the intrusion of 
this element is a subject of peculiar interest, particularly when it is 
possible to review it historically, and as opportunities for doing this are 
rare, it is well to make use of all that occur. 

The Indian convict settlement of Port Blair in the Andaman 
islands affords such an opportunity. This settlement was commenced 

25 


236 


in its pi’esent form in 1858, but it occupies the site of a settlement that 
existed for a few years in the end of the 18th century, so that some 
common weeds may possibly have been already introduced and estab¬ 
lished when the present colony was founded. This prevents us from 
going back without question to the year 1858 as a starting-point in our 
enquiry; but, while we are unable to do this, we have nevertheless a 
quite satisfactory date of commencement in the year 1866, for in that 
year the late Mr. S. Kurz* paid a botanical visit to the Andamans the 
results of which are enbodied in a Report on the Vegetation of the 
Andaman Islands.^ As an Appendix to this report (pp. 29—59) an 
Enumeration of the Plants on the Andaman Islands is given; in this 
enumeration and in a tabular Recapitulation (pp. 22, 23) Mr. Kurz has 
distinguished the non-indigenous element and dealt separately with its 
items. The treatment cannot be better explained than it is by Mr. 
Kurz himself in the following passage taken from his Report (p. 24) :— 

“ A considerable number of plants on the Andamans are only in- 
“ trodueed, though some of these species in the suri’ounding countries 
“ are without any hesitation enumerated in their floras as indigenous. 
“ I noted not less than 76 of these introduced species, while in Singa- 
“pore the numbers are only 31. This great difference, however, is 
“scarcely a real one, as we can be certain that most plants at the latter 
“ place are introduced only when they are known to be non-Indian 
“ forms. 

“ The introduced herbaceous plants on the Andamans are 74 in 
“number; thus being in proportion to the woody plants as 37: 1. Of 
“ these, seven only are American; which are, therefore, surpassed in 
“ number by nine times the introduced species from the old Continent. 
“ As regards dissemination, the American species supersede the old 
“Asiatic forms (except grasses), however, in number of individuals. 

“ An enquiry into the causes of the different modes of immigration 
“ of the non-indigenous plants on the Andamans would show that the 
“ whole number has been introduced by the agency of man, direct and 
“indirect—a fact which also proves how little chance there is for exotic 
“ plants to cross the sea. I am inclined also to believe that introduction 
“ by means of winds, birds, &c., is applicable only to continents and 
“ adjacent islands, but not to isolated groups of islands. The Andamans 
“ will become an instructive spot for inquiries into the change of a flora 

* Wilhelm Sulpiz Kurz, native of Augsburg, Curator of the Herbarium of the 
Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, from 1863 till his death in 1878. 

t Calcutta; Office of Superintendent of Government Printing, Ed. 2, 1870: 
[the first issue, a purely official document of which the edition quoted is a rejprint, 
was circulated by the Government of India in 1867.] 

26 


237 


“by introductions. As I directed my full attention to herbaceous 
“ plants, I hope that I have noted nearly all the plants growing at my 
“ visit in the cleared lands.” 

During a brief visit to the Andamans, in N'ovember 1889, the writer 
made as complete a collection as the time at his disposal would permit 
of the naturalised species in the settlement at Port Blair, in order to 
ascertain the number and nature of the species introduced between 1866 
and 1889. And Dr. King, who paid a short visit to the settlement in 
April 1890, very kindly collected such weeds as were flowering then, but 
had not been seen in the previous November. The results of the visits 
are given below, the plants collected first by Dr. King being indicated 
by a (K) ; the following method has been adopted in presenting them :— 

1. Cultivated species and weeds—enumerated together by Mr. 
Kurz—are here dealt with separately. 

2. Species (of both kinds) present in 1866 are taken from the 
Enumeration by Mr. Kurz referred to above ; for convenience of reference 
the synonymy of the Report has been made to conform with the nomen¬ 
clature in the Flora of British India.* 

3. Additional species (of both kinds) are those first met with by 
the writer in 1889, or by Dr. King in 1890. 

It ought to be noted that the list of cultivated species for 1866, as 
the remarks of Mr. Kurz shew, is not exhaustive. This is equally true 
of the corresponding list for 1890. It has been felt that an exhaustive 
list of exotic species could serve no useful purpose; it is sufficient if 
attention be directed to such plants, introduced since 1866, as may be 
reasonably supposed to be capable of becoming in the course of time 
spontaneous or subspontaneous, and to such plants as possess a direct 
economic interest. The remarks attributed to Mr. Kurz are in every 
case taken verbatim from his report; where necessary the condition of 
the species in 1889-90 is commented on; when no Second remark occurs 
the condition of the species is to be understood as having remained ap¬ 
parently unchanged during the period between 1866 and 1890, 

* This it has been possible to do with certainty since the original specimens 
on which Mr. Kurz’ Report is based are preserved in the Calcutta Herb winm and 
have in every case been re-examined by the writer. 


27 


238 


A. Species under cultivation, obviously planted or intentionally 

INTRODUCED. 

I. Species under cultivation or obviously planted in 1866. 


Name of Species. 

Eemaeks. 

Condition in 1866 (Kurz). 

Condition in 1889-90. 

Michelia Champaca 
Linn. 

Cananga odorata H. 
F. & 'T. 

‘ Cultivated in gardens at 
Port Blair.’ 

‘ Cultivated only in the 
gardens.’ 


Anona squamosa Linn. 
*Brassica oleracea 

Linn. 

5 *B. campestris Linn. 

‘ Cultivated only in gardens.’ 

‘ Many varieties of this 
plant are cultivated, but 
do not grow well owing 
to the great moisture of 
the atmosphere.’ 

‘ As the former.’ 


*E.aplianus sativas 

Linn. 

Bixa Orellana Linn. 

‘ Cultivated only.* 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

Cultivated and appearing 

Hibiscus rosa sinensis 
Linn. 

Gossjqjium barba- 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

spontaneously in waste 
places. 

Cultivated and (as on Mt. 

dense Linn. VAR. 
acuminatum. 

10 Impatiens Balsamina 

‘ Cultivated in gardens, and 

Harriet) appearing spon¬ 
taneously in waste places. 

Linn. 

Citrus medica Linn. 

C. decumana Linn. 

Mangifera indica Linn. 

sometimes spontaneously.’ 

‘ Cultivated in the gardens 
of Europeans.’ 
[Cultivated in the gardens 
of Europeans]. 

‘ Cultivated.’ 

Not very successfully. 

Moringa pterygosper- 

‘ A couple of trees observed 

Very common everywhere 

ma Gaertn. 

on Viper island evidently 
planted.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

throughout the Settle- 

15 *Lupinus, sp. 

ment. 

Not seen in 1889 or 1890. 

Sesbania grandiflora 
Pers. 

*Cicerarietinum Linn 
*Pisum sativum Linn. 
Clitoria Ternatea 

Linn. 

20 Canavalia ensiformis 

‘ Cultivated at Hopetown, 
Ross Island, etc.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated and sometimes 
as wild.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

Mr. Kurz refers to the 

DG. 

form distinguished as G. 
gladiata by M. DeCan- 
dolle. The wild form of 
the plant is indigenous. 


28 











25 

30 

35 

40 

45 


239 


Eemarks. 


Name of Species. 


Pliaseolus, several 
species. 

Vigna Catjang Endl. 

Pachyrliizus angula- 
tus Rich. 

Dolichos Lablab Linn. 

Cajanus indicns 
Spreng. 

Caesalpinia pulcberri- 
ma Sw. 

Cassia Fistula Linn. 

Acacia Farnesiana 
Willd. 

Leucaena glanca 
Benth. 

*Rosa, several species. 

^Q.uisqualis indica 
Linn. 

Psidium Guyava Linn. 

*Cupbea, sp. 


Lawsonia alba Lamk. 

Punica Granatam 
Linn. 

*Passiflora laurifolia 
Linn. 

Carica Papaya Linn. 


Tricbosanthes cuca- 
aieriaa Linn. 

T. aagaiaa Linn. 
Lageaaria valgaris 
Ser. 

LafEa aegyptiaca Mill. 

Beaiacasia cerifera 
Savi. 

Moarordica Charaatia. 
Linn. 

M. dioica Roxh. 
Cacaaiis Melo Linn. 
C. sativus Linn. 
Citrallas vulgaris, 
Schrad. 


Coaditioa ia 1866 (Kurz). 


‘ Cultivated oaly ia gardeas.’ 

‘ Much cultivated by aative 
coavicts.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated oaly.’ 

‘ Cultivated aad soaietiaies 
vrild.’ 

‘ Oaly cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated ia gardeas at 
Eoss Islaad.’ 

‘Much cultivated oa Eoss 
Islaad.’ 

‘ Cultivated oa Eoss Islaad.’ 

‘ Cultivated ia gardeas.’ 

‘ Ia gardeas of Europeaas, 
cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated oaly.’ 

‘ Observed occasioually ia 
the gardeas of Eu¬ 
ropeaas.’ 

‘ Oaly cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated oaly.’ 

‘Cultivated ia gardeas of 
Europeaas.’ 

‘ Cultivated aad spoata- 
aeously springiag up 
arouad Port Blair.’ 


Coaditioa ia 1889-90. 


P. lunatus, P. vulgaris aad 
P. Mungo. 


Ia maay places subspoata- 
aeous or spoataaeous. 


A good deal plaated oa Mt. 
Harriet. 

Not seea ia 1889. 


Used as a hedge at Aber- 
deea. 


Now very coaiaiou aloag 
the sides of juagle paths 
aad spreadiug aloag the 
coast withia the liae of 
shore vegetatiou. 

CoairQoaly spoataaeous. 

Oaly ia cultivatioa. 


Cultivated aad also as au 
escape. 


‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 
‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 


‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 
‘ Cultivated.’ 
' Cultivated.’ 
‘ Cultivated.’ 


29 














240 


Names of Species. 

Eemares. 

Condition in 1866 (Kwz.) 

Condition in 1889-90. 

60 Cncnrbita maxima 

‘ Cultivated.’ 


Duchesne. 

*Opnnfcia ') ^ 

*Cereus j g 

*Melocactiis ^ “ 'o 
*Bpipliyllum I ^ a 
65 *Ecbinocactus J 

*Carum Eoxburghia- 
nam Benth. 
*Peuceclannm graveo- 
lens Benth. 

*Coriandrum sativum 
Linn. 

^Cumiiium Cyminum 
Linn. 

60 *Eondeletia speciosa 

‘ In the gardens of Eu¬ 
ropeans.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 


Lodd. 

*Pentas carnea, Benth. 
Zinnia, several species. 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

Frequently subspontan- 

*Endbeckia, species. 
^Coreopsis, several 
species. 

65 Tagetes, several 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 
[Cultivated in gardens.] 

[Cultivated in gardens.] 

eons. 

Also in waste places near 
the houses of ‘ self-sup¬ 
porter ’ convict colonists, 
common. 

Very common in waste 

species. 

Plumbago rosea Linn. 
Jasminum, several sp. 

Allamanda catbartica 
Linn. 

Tbevetia neriifolia 

Juss. 

70 Vinca rosea Linn. 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in the gardens 
of Europeans.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated and sometimes 

Plumeria acutifolia 

as wild.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

places on Eoss Island, and 
about Aberdeen. 

A very favourite shrub in 

Poi.r. 

Nerium odorum Sol. 
*Heliotropium peru- 
vianum Linn. 
Ipomoea Bona-nox 

Linn. 

75 I. Quamoclit Linn. 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated only in gardens 
of Europeans.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens, 

all the European gardens. 

I. Batatas Lamk. 

and now occurring as 
wild on Eoss Island.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

The Sweet-potato is rather 

Lycopersicum escu- 
lentum Mill. 

‘ Much cultivated by native 
convicts.’ 

largely cultivated in the 
Settlement. 


30 












241 


80 


85 


90 


REMARKa. 


Name of Species. 


Solanum Melongena 
Linn. 


Capsicum, several 
species. 


Datura, species. 


Nicotiaua Tabacum 
Linn. 

*Petunia violacea 
Linn. 

*Russelia juncea/wcc. 
J usticia Gendarussa 
Linn. f. 

Graptophyllum bor- 
tense Nees. 

Lantaua camara Linn. 


Stacbytarpheta in- 
dica Vahl. 


*Verbeua Aubletia 
Linn. and other 
species. 

Duranta Plumieri Jacq. 
Vitex trifolia Linn. 

Ocimum sanctum 
Linn. 


Condition in 1866 (Kurz). 


‘ Much cultivated in native 
gardens and occasional¬ 
ly as wild.’ 

‘ In cultivation by native 
convicts.’ 


‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 


‘ Cultivated on Mt. Harriet, 
etc.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 


‘ About Aberdeen, amongst 
the shrubberies as wild 
but rare.’ 

‘Cultivated in gardens, at 
present covering all the 
sides of Ross Island and 
around Aberdeen.’ 


‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 


Condition in 1889-90. 


Often in waste places along 
with S. indicum and S. 
ferox; less often with 8. 
torvum. 

Both the Chillee {Q, /tu- 
tescens) and the Bird’s- 
eye Chillee (Q. minimum) 
are much cultivated and 
the latter—the one with 
small elongated erect 
berries—is now a frequent 
weed in waste places. 
The Big Chillee (C. gros- 
sum) with large round 
red berries is very little 
grown. 

There was no Datura in 
cultivation, so far as 1 
could see, but D. fastuosa 
Linn, is now a common 
weed on rubbish-heaps 
and in waste places. 

Systematically cultivated 
as one of the industries 
of the Settlement. 


Common at Aberdeen and 
also on Ross Island where 
it is planted and trimmed 
into a hedge ! 

Now also in many places 
on the opposite side of 
the harbour, as at Hope- 
town, Mitakari, etc., but 
never in gardens, either 
native or European. 


‘ Cultivated in gardens ’ 
‘Only cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated lands at Ross 
Island, introduced.’ 


Cultivated, but much more 
often quite spontaneous. 

Also in gardens, both of 
Europeans and natives, 
though very frequent in 
waste places all over the 
Settlement. 


‘ As the former.’ 


31 
















242 


Remarks. 


Names of Species. 


* Salvia coccinea Linn. 
and other species. 

95 Plantago major Linn. 

Mirabilis Jalapa Linn. 

Celosia cristata Linn. 

Amarantus, several 
species. 

Gomphrena globosa 
Linn. 

100 Piper Betle Linn. 

^Euphorbia pnlcherri- 
ma Willd. 

Jatropha multifida 
Linn. 

Jatropha purgans 
Linn. 

Ricinus communis 
Linn. 


105 Cannabis sativa Linn. 
Artocai'pus integri- 
folia Linn. 

Casuarina equisetifo- 
lia Forst. 


Curcuma, several 
species. 

Canna indica Linn. 


110 Musa sapientum Linn. 
Ananas sativa Adans. 


*Belamcanda sinensis 
Adans. 

*Zephyranthes, spe¬ 
cies. 

*Hippeastrum, spe¬ 
cies. 


Condition in 1866 {Kurz). 


‘ Cultivated in gardens of 
Europeans.’ 

‘Cultivated in native gar¬ 
dens.’ 

‘ Only cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in native gar¬ 
dens.’ 

‘ C ultivated and sometimes 
as wild.’ 

‘ Cultivated by convicts.’ 

‘ In gardens, cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 


‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ Cultivated only.’ 

‘ At Ross Island, cultivated.’ 


‘ Cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens and 
sometimes wild in jun¬ 
gles, where it has been 
sown.’ 

‘ Cultivated everywhere.’ 

‘ Now everywhere cultiva¬ 
ted and producing fruit 
of good quality.’ 

‘In gardens} cultivated.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

[Cultivated in gardens’]. 


Condition in 1889-90. 


Not seen in 1889 or 1890. 

Now not infrequently 
spontaneous. 

A. paniculatus and A. cau~ 
datus. 


Cultivated but also spon¬ 
taneous on all rubbish 
heaps and in every waste 
place and by roadsides. 


Also now extensively 
planted on Mt. Harriet 
and many seedlings ap¬ 
pearing. This species is, 
however, indigenous in 
the Andamans; Col. 
Cadell, V. C., Chief Com¬ 
missioner, tells me it is 
plentiful at Casuarina 
Bay on the west side of 
N. Andaman. 


32 












243 


Eemarks. 


Names of Species. 


115 * Allium sativum Linn 
*A. Oepa Linn. 

Areca Catechu Linn. 

Cocos nucifera Linn. 



‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

[Cultivated in gardens], 

‘ Cultivated, especially at 
Aberdeen.’ 

‘ Only on the Cocos islands 
indigenous. Now every¬ 
where cultivated and 
sown along the shores,’ 



Paiiicum iumentorum 
Fers. " 

Coix Lachryma Linn. 


120 Zea Mays Linn. 


Oryzas ativa Linn. 


‘ Cultivated at Ross Island 
and Aberdeen.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens.’ 

‘ Cultivated in gardens and 
sometimes as wild.’ 

‘ Only in small quantities ; 
cultivated.’ 


Saocharum officina- 
rum Linn. 

123 Cynodon Dactylon 
Pers. 


/ 


‘ Cultivated by convicts.’ 

‘ The favourite grass here ; 
everywhere sown and 
now occurring wild on 
the cleared lands.’ 


Extensively cultivated. 

Very extensively planted 
throughout the Settle¬ 
ment, many thousands of 
trees of excellent quality 
having been planted in 
the ground reclaimed 
from mangrove swamps. 
The quality of the cocoa- 
nut produced by the trees 
on Great Coco Island is 
comparatively poor. The 
question of distribution of 
this species is hoped to 
be discussed in a future 
note. 


Now in ditches as if wild 
at Aberdeen and Haddo. 

Cultivated largely; not 
seen anywhere as if spon¬ 
taneous. 

Now a staple crop; along 
with maize in new forest 
clearings, then rather un¬ 
successfully, especially 
during the first season, on 
account of an insect-pest; 
also very largely cultiva¬ 
ted in the reclaimed man¬ 
grove-swamp land, there 
producing heavy crops 
of excellent quality. 


Very common everywhere, 
and still the favourite 
grass. 


33 


33 

















244 


II. Species cultivated or planted, or obviously introduced, seen in 1889 

and 1890 7iot present in 1866. 


Names of Species. 


Remarks. 


Anona reticulata Linn. 

125 Garcinia Mangostana Linn. 
Camellia tlieifera Griff, 


Hibiscus esculentus Linn. 
H. Sabdariffa Linn. 

Durio Zibethinns DO. 

130 Swietenia Mabogani Linn, 
S. macrophylla King. 

*Nephelium Litchi Camb. 
Phaseolas trilobus Ait. 

Bauliinia acuminata, Linn. 

135 Poinciana regia Boj, 

Brownea, several varieties. 
Amherstia nobilis Wall. 
Tamarindus indica Linn. 
Saraca indica Linn. 

140 Pitbecolobium dulce Benth. 


P. Saman Benth. 


Cultivated. 

Cultivated and doing well. 

Systematically cultivated as one of the indus¬ 
tries of the Settlement 5 the tea produced is of 
excellent quality. 

Cultivated in gardens. 

Cultivated by convicts. 

Cultivated. 

Planted. 

Planted and thriving well, does much better 
than the true mahogany. 

Cultivated but with poor results. 

Cultivated by convicts, but also very common in 
waste places as a weed. 

Cultivated, but also appearing spontaneously. 

(K.) 

Planted. 

Planted. 

Planted and thrives very well. 

Planted. 

Planted. 

Planted as a shade-tree and also trimmed as a 
hedge; many seedlings appearing sponta¬ 
neously. 

Planted very generally; does well on roadsides 
and on ground too indiscriminately cleared— 
which few native species will.^ 


* Fithecolohium Saman, the Rain-tree, a native of the West Indies, Central 
America, Venezuela and Guiana, though yielding a timber useless except as firewood 
is nevertheless a valuable tree. It is a fast-growing and easily-raised species and, if 
planted along with more valuable kinds, forms an effective nurse for these during 
the earlier years of their growth. It also yields a valuable crop of sweet pulpy pods 
greedily eaten by cattle. It is said, moreover, to improve the quality of land encrust¬ 
ed with reh inflorescence. The following girth measurements of 13 trees in the 
Botanic Garden, Calcutta, will give some idea of the rate at which the species grows. 
The measurements in every case are taken at 60 inches fi'om the surface of the soil 
—the trees measured were not selected (except No. 13 which was added as being the 
largest in the whole line) but were contiguous trees 


College avenue. 
January 1890. 


The trees all date from 1876 5 the 


in the road known as the 
measurements were made in 


No. 

1. 

ft. 

5 

in. 

H 

No 8. 

ft. 

5 

in. 

1 


2. 

6 

4 

„ 9. 

5 

4 


3. 

6 

4 

„ 10. 

6 

7 


4. 

5 

7 

„ 11. 

7 

3 


5. 

7 

5 

12. 

5 

Hi 


6. 

7 

6 

„ 13. 

8 

3 

>> 

34 

7 . 

6 

lOi 

average girth 

6 

54 












245 


Names of Species. 

Remaeks. 

Melaleuca Leucadendron Linn. 

Planted. 

Eugenia Jambos Linn. 

Cultivated. 

*Daucus Carota Linn. 

Cultivated. 

145 Ixora coccinea Linn. 

Very common in gardens of Europeans. 

*Coffea arabica Linn. 

Cultivated. 

Carissa Carandas Linn. 

Cultivated, not very successfully. 

Ipomoea coccinea Linn. 

In gardens, but also a frequent escape. 

Solanum tuberosum Linn. 

The potato does very poorly. 

150 Physalis peruviana Linn. 

Cultivated. 

Torenia, sp. 

Cultivated, but also often appearing spon¬ 
taneously. 

Thunbergia alata Boj. 

Cultivated, but also appearing as an escape, e. g., 
at Namuna ghat. (K.) 

T. erecta T. And. 

Planted as a hedge on Mt. Harriet. 

Dsedalacanthus salaccensis 

Frequent in gardens. 

T. And. 

155 Tectona grandis Linn. f. 

The teak-plantations under the care of the 
Forest Department are doing exceedingly well.* 

Bougainvillea glabra Choisy. 

In gardens of Europeans. 

Deeringia celosioides Br. 

In gardens, but also appearing subspontaneously. 

Cinnamomum zeylanicum, 

Cultivated and doing very well. (K). 

Breyn. 

Euphorbia antiquorum Linn. 

Grown as a hedge-plant. 

160 Ficus bengalensis Linn. 

Planted. 

F. Rumphii Blume. 

Largely jdanted on roadsides at Aberdeen un¬ 
der the impression that it was the Pipal 
(F. religiosa). 

F. religiosa Linn. 

A few trees only. 

Ravenala madagascariensis 

Planted. 

Adans. 


Agave vivipara Linn. 

Very common in gardens of Europeans. 

165 Dioscorea sativa Linn. 

Cultivated. 

Colocasia antiquorum Schott. 

Cultivated but also appearing spontaneously in 
marshy spots around Aberdeen. 

\ 

Bambusa Brandish Mum'o. 

Dendrooalamus strictus Nees. 

1 f These Bamboos have been planted somewhat 

169 Cephalostachyum pergraoile 

( 1 extensively throughout the Settlement. 

Munro. 



These intentionally introduced species belong to tbi’ee distinct 
classes :— 

1. Such as prohaily never could become nahiralized—traly exotic 
species, such as temperate vegetables and garden flowers and plants 

The name Rain-tree is derived from a phenomenon of condensation or exuda¬ 
tion (both explanations have been offered) said to he exhibited by the tree in America ; 
in India nothing of the sort occurs. 

* It should be noted also that the Forest Department is actively engaged in 
propagating Tadouk, a very valuable indigenous timber tree {Fterocar'pus indicus 
W illd.) and that the Andamanese Fyenmah, another good timber tree {Lagerstrcemia 
hypoleuca Kurz) is extensively planted. 


35 










246 


that affect a drier climate than that of the Andamans ; such species 
have been distinguished by an (*) :— 

2. Such as might he expected to hold their oivn in the struggle for 
existence should the Settlement happen to be abandoned—a class the 
precise limits of which cannot be laid down with certainty; this is the 
class not marked (*) and at the same time not noted as occurring spon¬ 
taneously ; it is moreover from this that the next class is recruited ; 

3. Such as are naturalized in the Andamans noiv —the species for 
which there was evidence either in 1866 or 1890 that spontaneous 
appearance has actually commenced. 

The two former classes do not require further consideration ; taken 
in detail we find that of the last class 14 species were naturalized prior 
to 1866. These were :— 


Impatiens Balsamina. 
Clitoria Ternatea. 
Cajanus indiciis. 
Carica Papaya. 

Vinca rosea. 

Ipomoea Quamoclit. 
Solanum Melongena. 


Lantana cawara. 
Stachytarpheta indica. 
Ocimum sanctum. 
Oomphrena glohosa. 
Ganna indica. 

Cocos nucifera. 
Cynodon Pactylon. 


Before 1889 14 other species, that had been introduced prior to 1866 
but had not at that date become naturalised, had begun to appear spon¬ 
taneously. These were :— 


Bixa Orellana. 

Gossypium harhadense. 
Moringa pterygosperma. 
Trichosanthes cucumerina. 
Luffa cegyptiaca. 

Zinnia elegans. 

Tagetes, sp. 


Capsicum minimum. 
Batura fastuosa. 

Vitex trifolia. 
Mirahilis Jalapa. 
Bicinus communis. 
Gasuaria equisetifolia. 
Goix Lachryma. 


At the same time 9 other species not present in the Andamans at 
all in 1866 were nevertheless appearing spontaneously in 1890. These 
were :— 

Phaseohis trilohus. Ipomoea coccinea. 

Bauhinia acuminata. Torenia, sp. 

Pithecolohium dulce. Thunbergia alata. 

P. Saman. Beeringia celosiodes. 

Colocasia antiquorum. 


So that in 1890 there were in the Andamans no fewer than 37 
species occurring spontaneously that had originally been intentionally 
introduced, as against 14 species of this kind in 1866. 

It is necessary to note further that one species, Zea Mays, which 
36 


247 


Mr. Kurz found occurring spontaneously in 1866, was only seen culti¬ 
vated in 1889 and 1890. 

B. Weeds or unintentionally introduced species. 

III. Species unintentionally introduced prior to 1866. 


Name of Species. 


Remarks. 


Condition in 1866 {Kur%), 


Cleome viscosa Linn, 

S aponaria V accaria 

Linn, 

Portnlaoa oleracea 
Linn, 

Portulaca qnadrifida 
Linn, 

5 Sidacarpinifola Linu. 

Oxalis corniculata 
Linn, 

Cardiospermum Hali- 
cacabnm Linn, 

Desmodium triflorura 
DO, 

Cassia alata Linn, 

10 Mimosa pudica Linn, 

Bryopliylltim calyci- 
nnm SaJisb, 

Lndwigia prostrata 
Roxb, 


Mukia scabrella Am, 
Dentella repens Forst, 


' Cultivated lands, Ross 
Island, introduced and 
rare.’ 

^ Cultivated lands near Aber¬ 
deen, introduced and rare.’ 

‘ Cleared lands around Aber¬ 
deen, Haddo, on Ross 
Island, etc., introduced.’ 

^ Cleared lands around Port 
Blair, introduced.’ 

‘ Cleared lands, Aberdeen, 
Ross Island, etc., intro¬ 
duced.’ 

‘ Cultivated lands around 
Port Blair, introduced 
and rare. 

^ Cleared lands around Aber¬ 
deen, common but intro- ’ 
duced.’ 

^ Common in cleared lands 
around Port Blair, intro¬ 
duced.’ 

^ Hopetown, as wild, but 
evidently introduced.’ 

‘ Cleared lands around Aber¬ 
deen and Phoenix Bay, 
rare, introduced.’ 

‘ On Ross Island, in culti¬ 
vated lands, rare, and 
evidently introduced.’ 

‘ Prom Aberdeen to Haddo 
on wet places, appeal’s to 
be introduced with rice.’ 
The L, parviflora of Mr. 
Kurz’s list. Both sp. are 
now common but Mr. Kurz 
only gathered this one. 

' Aberdeen, cultivated lands, 
rare, introduced.’ 

‘ Cultivated lands on Ross 
Island, around Aberdeen, 
etc., introduced. 


Condition in 1889-90. 


Still rare. 


Not seen in 1889 or 1890, 

Observed at Rangachang 
also, which is almost the 
extreme limit of the Set¬ 
tlement. 

Much more unusual than 
the preceding. 

Yery common all over the 
Settlement. 

Still exceedingly uncom¬ 
mon ; not seen on Ross 
Island. 


Yery common on the drier 
grassy slopes all over the 
Settlement. 

Yery common near Hope- 
town, not seen elsewhere. 

Yery common throughout 
the whole extent of the 
Settlement. 

Not seen in 1889 or 1890. 


Common in the rice fields 
reclaimed from mangrove 
swamps all over the Settle¬ 
ment. 


Not uncommon about the 
Settlement. 


37 


















248 


Name of Species. 

Kemarks. 

Condition in 1866 (Kurz.) 

Condition in 1889-90. 

15 Oldenlandia corym- 
bosa Linn. 

Vernonia cinerea Less, 

' Cultivated lands around 
Port Blair, introduced.’ 

^ Common all over the 
cleared lands but only 
introduced.’ 

A very common species. 

Elepbantopus scaber 
Linn. 

Ageratum conyzoides 
Linn. 

‘ Boss island in cultivated 
lands, rare, introduced.’ 

^ Common on cleared 

ground, rapidly penetra¬ 
ting into the jungles 
whenever a little cleared, 
introduced.’ 

Not seen in 1889 or 1890, 

BlTiTTiea amplectens 

‘ Phoenix Bay, cleared lands, 
introduced.’ 

Common everywhere, but 

DO. 

possibly indigenous. 

20 Eclipta alba Hassle. 

‘Common on cultivated or 
cleared lands around Port 
Blair, introduced.’ 

Synedrella nodiflora 

‘ Common on cleared lands 

Extremely common every- 

Gaertn, 

Centipeda orbicularis 
Lour. 

around Hopetown and 
Aberdeen, introduced. ’ 
(Blainvillea latifolia Kurz, 
non DC ) ; ‘ cultivated 

lands, Boss Island, rare, 
introduced’ ; {S'pilanthes 
oleracea Kurz, non Linn.). 

‘ Cultivated lands on Boss 
Island, around Aberdeen, 
etc., introduced.’ 

where and in two striking¬ 
ly distinct conditions ; one, 
the genuine plant, and an¬ 
other, larger in habit and 
ranker of growth but 
smoother in all its parts, 
strikingly like Blainvillea 
latifolia at first sight. 

n el iotropium indicum 
Linn* 

‘ Cultivated lands around 
Aberdeen, rare and intro¬ 
duced.’ 

Not very common. 

Cyuoglossum micran- 

‘ Between Aberdeen and 

Not seeninNovember, 1889 

thum Desf, 

Phoenix Bay, I suspect 
introduced only, as 1 saw 
it nowhere else.’ 

found in April, 1890. 

25 Solanum nigrum Linn. 

‘ Cultivated lands around 
Aberdeen, rare, intro- 
troduced.’ 

Very common. 

Solanum torvum Sw. 

‘ Around Aberdeen, etc. ; 
introduced,’ 

Very common. 

Solanum xanthocar- 
pum Schrad. 

‘ Cleared lands around 
Phoenix Bay and Aber¬ 
deen ; introduced.’ 

Not at all common. 

Argelonia salicariae- 
folia H. B. ^ K, 

Mazus rugosus Lour. 

‘ Common in cultivated lands 
on Boss Island; intro¬ 
duced.’ 

‘ Cultivated lands around 
Aberdeen ; introduced.’ 

Not common. 

30 Yandellia Crustacea 
Benth. 

Bonnaya veronicse- 
folia Benth. 

‘ In cultivated laiids around 
Port Blair ; introduced.’ 

‘ Cultivated lands around 
Aberdeen ; introduced.’ 

. 



38 




















249 


Names of Species. 

Remarks. 

Condition in 1866 (Kurz. 

Condition in 1889-90. 

Scoparia dulcis Linn. 

‘ Common all over the 
cleared lands around Port 
Blair and penetrating 
into the jungles ; intro¬ 
duced.’ 


Rnngia parvifiora Nees 
VAK. peofcinata Clarke. 

Lippia uodiflora Rich. 

‘ Andamans,’ 

‘ Cleared lands all around 
Port Blair, and becoming 
very fleshy along the sea 
shores; introduced.’ 

On Ross Island, and evi¬ 
dently introduced, not 
common. 

35 Lencas linifolia 

‘ Cultivated lands, on Cha- 

Not yet on the mainland or 

Spreng, 

tham Island ; introduced 
and still rare.’ 

on Ross Island appa¬ 
rently. 

Celosiaargeiitea Linn. 

‘ Cleared lands around Had- 
do ; rare ; introduced. 

Still rare. 

Amarantus spinosus 
Linn* 

‘ Cultivated lauds around 
Phoenix Bay ; introduced 
and rare.’ 

Still rare. 

A. viridis Linn. 

* Rather common in cleared 
lands at Aberdeen, Ross 
Island, Haddo, etc.; in¬ 
troduced.’ 

Very common. 

Alternanthera sessilis 
R. Br. 

‘ Common in cleared lands 
along roads, etc., at Port 
Blair ; introduced.’ 

Common. 

40 rolygonam barbatum 

‘ Some shoots of species of 

Common in the ditches 

Linn. 

Euphorbia pilulifera 
Linn. 

E. thymifolia Burin. 

Cyperus polystachyus 
Rotth. 

C. distans Linn. fil. 

this genus I observed 
in the cultivated lands 
around Haddo j evidently 
introduced.’ 

‘ Cultivated lands around 
Port Blair; common j in¬ 
troduced. 

‘ Along roads, in cultivated 
lands, etc., around Port 
Blair ; introduced.’ 

‘ Cultivated lands between 
Aberdeen and Navy 
Point; introduced.’ 

‘ Ross Island and other sta¬ 
tions, in pasture ground; 
introduced.’ 

about Aberdeen. 

45 C. compressus Linn. 

‘ Cultivated lands here and 
there around Port Blair ; 
introduced.’ 


C. Iria Linn, 

‘ Rather rare, in wet places 
at Ross Island, etc .; in¬ 
troduced.’ 

Not now very rare. 

Kyllinga monoce- 

‘ Cleared lands around Port 

Common; both type and 

phala Rottb. 

Blair j introduced.’ 

VAR. subtriceps. K. tri¬ 
ceps of Kurz’ list is only 
this latter variety. 


39 












250 


Eemarks, 


Names of Species. 



Fimbristylis dipbylla 
Vahl. 



Paspalum filicnlmum 
Nees. 

P. scrobiculatum Linn. 

Eriocliloa annulata 
Nees. 

Panicum Colonum 
Linn, 


y 


P. oiliare Retz. 



P. sangninale 


Linn. 


55 Andropogon pseado 
ischaemam Nees. 


A. contortam Linn. 



Cbrysopogon acicala- 
tam Trin. 

Sporobolas diander 
Trin. 

Eleasine indica Gaertn. 


60 B. aegyptiaca Pers. 

y 

61 Leptocbloa filiformis 
. R. Br. 


Condition in 1866 (Kurz.) 


‘ Common all over the 
cleared lands aroand Port 
Blair ; introdaced.’ The 
F. miliacea of Karz’ list 
is only another state of 
this species and is not F. 
miliacea of Vahl. 

‘ On Ross Islandj introdaced.’ 

‘ Caltivated lands aroand ^ 
Port Blair; introdaced. 

‘ On Ross Island; introdaced.’ 

‘ Soatb Point, Aberdeen, 
etc., in caltivated lands; 
introdaced.’ 

‘ Common in caltivated 
lands aroand Port Blair ; 
introdaced.’ 

‘Caltivated lands aroand 
Pert Blair; introdaced.’ 

‘ Caltivated lands and gar¬ 
dens at Ross Island ; in¬ 
trodaced.’ 

‘ Only in garden land on 
Ross Island ; introdaced.’ 

‘ Common on Chatham 

Island ; introdaced.’ 

‘ Common on Chatham 

Island ; introdaced.’ 

‘ Caltivated lands every- 
vrhere aroand Port Blair; 
introdaced.’ 

‘Caltivated lands on Ross 
Island ; introdaced.’ 

‘ Along the path from Phoe¬ 
nix Bay to Aberdeen; 
scarce; introdaced.’ 


Condition in 1889-90. 


Perhaps indigenoas. 


Common. 


Also aboat Aberdeen. 


Common everywhere. 

Common throaghoat the 
Settlement. 

Very common throaghoat 
the Settlement. 


Common every where 
aroand Port Blair. 


IV. Species unintentionally introduced between 1866 and 1890. 


Name of Species. 

Remarks. 

Sida rhombifolia Linn. 

Everywhere throaghoat the Settlement and 
qaite as common as S. carpinifolia is. 

Melochia corchorifolia Linn. 

Occasional. 

Triamfetta rhomboidea Jaeg. 

On Ross Island, and also at Aberdeen, not yet 
very common. 

65 Crotalaria retusa Linn. 

Not infrequent about Aberdeen, not seen in 
cultivation. 


40 




















251 


Names of Species. 


Kemarks. 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


Smitliia sensitiva Linn. 
Desmodium polycarpon DO. 


D. aaricomum Grah. 


Alysicarpus vaginalis DO. 
Cassia occidentalis Lin 7 i. 
C. Tora Linn. 

Ammannia baccifera Linn. 
Jussiaea suffruticosa Zamh. 

Ludwigia parviflora Roxb. 

Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn. 


Oldenlandia diffusa Roxb. 

O. crystallina Linn. 

O. panicnlata Linn.; forma 
‘ minima ’ = Sedyotis minima 
Burm. 

Adenostemma viscosnm Forst. 

Blumea glomerata DO. 

Wedelia calendulacea L£ss. 
Cosmos sulphureus Oav. 


Tridax procumbens Linn. 

Crepis japonioa Benth. 
Sonchus arvensis Linn. 
Launea nudicaulis Less. 
Ipomoea aquatica Forsh. 


Solanum ferox Linn. 
S. indicum hinn. 


Physalis minima Linn. 
Sfcriga lutea Lour. 

Sesamum indicum DO. 


Common on dry grassy slopes at Aberdeen. 
Common at North Bay and on the cleared hill- 
sides above. Not met with by Mr. Kurz, but, 
perhaps, it may be indigenous for it also 
occurs on Great Coco Island and Barren Island. 
Common along with Smithia and with Desmo- 
dnim trifiorum. It is rather an interesting 
addition to the Flora, for though a mere weed 
this plant has hitherto only been collected in 
Tenasserim, Martaban and Arracan. 

Common on grassy slopes (K.) 

Common (K.). 

Very common everywhere. 

In wet places, not uncommon. 

In web places, along with the two Ludwigias and 
much more plentiful than either. 

Common in ricefields, but not quite so frequent 
as L. prostrata. 

Common on stone walls and roadsides all over 
Koss Island, but not yet present on the main¬ 
land or on the other islands. 

Aberdeen etc., not very common. 

The commonest Oldenlandia on Ross Island. 
The commonest both at Aberdeen and on 
Mt. Harriet is 0. corymbosa. 

Common on Ross Island and obtained both by 
the writer in 1889 and by Dr. King in 1890. 

Only met with in one place on a rubbish heap 
Ross Island. 

Common on Ross Island, etc., (K.). 

Ross Island only (K.) 

Very common on hill sides and waste places. 
This the writer was assured had never been 
grown as a garden plant. It forms large 
patches where it occurs, the individual plants 
being 6 to 10 feet in height. 

Common on Ross, not yet common on the 
mainland. 

Introduced at Aberdeen (K.). 

Common in gravel pits on Mt. Harriet. 

Both on Ross and at Aberdeen (K.). 

In ponds at Aberdeen ; the mode of introduc¬ 
tion of this species is open to question. It 
may have been introduced by birds, but it 
may equally well have been introduced as 
a weed. 

Very common all over the settlement on drier 
hill sides along with S. torvum. 

Quite as common as the preceding. [,8. nigrum 
and S. xanthoca7-pum, though introduced be¬ 
fore 1866, are by no means so frequent,] 

Not at all common. 

Common on dry hill sides at Aberdeen, parasi¬ 
tic on introduced grasses. 

Frequent (K.). 


41 












252 


Names of Species. 


Eemarks. 


Phaylopsis parrifiora Willd. 
Hygrophila qnadrivalvis Nees. 

95 Lippia geminata H. B. K. 
Hyptis brevipes Boit. 
Bcerhaavia repena Linn, 


Aerna lanata Juss. 
Achyranthes aspera Linn, 

100 Phyllanthns ■orinaria Linn, 


Monochoria vaginalis Fresl, 



Paspalum distichnm Linn, 
P. pedicellatum ITees, 
Panicum erucseforme Sihth, 
excnrrens Trin. 

P. longipes W. ^ A. 

P. myosnroides i?. Br. 
Imperata cylindrica Kunth, 

Eottboellia exaltata Linn, 

/■ 


Eare, on Eoss only (K.). 

Common in wet places along with Jussicea and 
Ludivigia. 

At Namuna ghat (K), rare. 

Common (K.). 

Not common and not met with by Mr. Kurz ; 
it may, however, be indigenous; it certainly 
seems to be so on Great Coco Island. 

Not very common. 

Very common in every part of the settlement 
and penetrating into the jungles. 

Common on Eoss and on Mt. Harriet; not so 
plentiful at Aberdeen. 

In ponds at Aberdeen ; perhaps introduced by 
means of wading-birds.* 

Common on Eoss and at Hopetown. 

Common on Eoss, not seen elsewhere. 

Aberdeen, common. 

By edge of pond at Aberdeen. 

On Mt. Harriet. 

Very common. 

Common everywhere. 

Common in marshy ground about Aberdeen 
and Haddo. 




* There is another species that has, however, been excluded from this list, be¬ 
cause neither Dr. King in 1890 nor the writer in 1889 met with it, to which the same 
remark applies. This species is Barclaya longifolia. The Andamans is first given 
as a locality for this species in King : Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula, 
p. 34. The Andamans specimens were obtained by one of Dr. King’s garden col¬ 
lectors in 1884 in a ditch among rice-fields near Haddo. It may be said with some¬ 
thing like certainty that the species was not there in 1858 ; at all events there was 
no rice-field and no ditch then. And it is almost as certain that it was not present 
m 1866, for Mr. Kurz, as his Report shews, gave particular attention to aquatic 
vegetation, yet he did not meet with it. Probably the ditch where Dr. King’s 
collector found Barclaya, like the pond where the writer found Monoohoria and 
Ceratopteris, did not exist at all in 1886. Another circumstance that tends to con¬ 
firm the idea of the introduction being recent is that it does not appear to be 
present in any of the ditches or ponds examined by the writer in 1889, and Dr. King, 
to whom this fact was particularly mentioned, and who looked for Barclaya with 
especial care in 1890, was equally unsuccessful in his search. It may, therefore, be 
safely presumed to be still quite local. For the appearance of Barclaya, as for 
that of Monochoria, bird-agency at once suggests itself; introduction by indirect 
human agency is not, however, precluded in either case. Allowing the mode of 
introduction to be a point altogether doubtful, there still remains an interesting 
fact—this species (like Desmodium auricomum) is one hitherto only known from the 
opposite shores of the Andaman Sea. And this fact weakens the evidence from 
other sources as to introduction ; for it is the Burmese, and particularly the Pegu- 
Tenasserim element, that seems to predominate in the indigenous Andaman fiora 

42 







253 


Names of Species. 

Remarks, 

110 Ischsemnm rngosnm Nees. 

I. ciliare Retz. 

Anthistiria scandens Roxb. 
Chloris barbata Sw. 

Eragrosfcis unioloides Nees. 

Aberdeen, 

Aberdeen, ratber common. 

Aberdeen, very common. 

Rosa Island and Aberdeen. 

Very common on Ross Island, not seen at 
Aberdeen. 

115 f Selaginella proniflora Bale. 

w 1 

s 

cS 1 

Cheilanthes tennifofia Siiv. 

I Ceratopteris tbalictroides 
^ 1 Brogn. 

^ 1 

Very plentiful everywhere on Ross, but not 
present either at Aberdeen, Hopetown or 
Viper. 

On gravelly roadsides at Aberdeen, ■ 

In ponds at Aberdeen ; possibly introduced by 
water-birds ; (see note on Monochoria vagin¬ 
alis.) 1 


Comparing the state of affairs in 1866 with that prevailing in 1890 
we find that at the former date there were present in the Andamans 61 
weeds of cultivation of which 68 were again met with, either in Novem¬ 
ber 1889 or in April 1890. But too great weight should not be placed 
on the absence of any plant, since it is quite possible that in visits of 
such short duration as those of the writer and Dr. King species that 
are not very common might easily be oveidooked. 

In November 1889 and in April 1890, on the other hand, we find 
that not only were 58, or 95 %, of the weeds of 1866, present, but that 56 
others had found their way into the settlement during the interval be¬ 
tween 1866 and 1890. 

Briefly reviewed the results indicated by these four lists are :— 

1. That in 1866 15 intentionally introduced plants and 61 weeds 
of cultivation had apparently or actually become so established in the 
Andamans that, . though not indigenous plants, they had become an 
integral portion of the Andamans flora. 

2. That by 1890 14 more of the plants intentionally introduced 
prior to, but only seen under cultivation in, 1866 had become similarly 
naturalised; that along with these 9 species, intentionally introduced 
during the interval between 1866 and 1890, had begun to appear spon¬ 
taneously ; also, that during the same interval 56 more weeds had been 
introduced. 

3. That, on the other hand, a species appearing spontaneously in 
1866 was only seen cultivated in 1890, and that three of the 1866 weeds 
were not met with in 1889 or 1890. 

The subjoined table exhibits the intrusion of the non-indigenous 
element at present existing in the flora of the Andamans. 


43 












264 


Table I. Intrusion of non-indigenous Andamans plants. 
Non-indigenous species :— 


Introduced intentionally:— 


Introduced unintentionally:— 


Prior to 1886During 1886-90 Prior to 1886 During 1886-90, 


Natura- Natura- | 

lised lised Naturalised | 

in 1866 in 1890:— in 1890 Seen in 1866 


Seen in 1889 Seen in 1889 

or 1890:— or 1890:— 



(61-3) 


II 


15. 


28, 


9. 


61. 


58. 


56. 


Total for 1866. 15 -f 61 = 76, 

Total for period 1866-90. 14-f 9-f56 = 79 . 

Total for 1890. 28-t- 9-f 58-f 56 = 151. 


During his stay in the Andamans in 1866 Mr. Kurz observed 520 
indigenous species. But he has pointed out {Report, p. 19) that this 
“ is only an approximation to the actual number existing on the is- 
“ lands. Since 1866 the number of indigenous species has been raised 
to about 600. Mr. Kurz has recorded the number of species found 
growing on 100 square yards in a suitable locality in the interior on the 
eastern side of the island and not far from Abei’deen. He shews 
{Report, p. 21) that an estimate based on this record and extended to 
the rest of the islands of the Andaman group gives scarcely more than 
600 or 700 species for the whole. At the same time, he thinks that an 
estimate of the same kind deduced from the conditions that prevail on 
the western side of the island would give quite other results, and, taking 
everything into consideration, he concludes that “ the number of really 
“ indigenous phsenogamic plants may range between 1500 and 1800 
“ species. ’ In all probability the second estimate is too high and per¬ 
haps a number nearer 1000 will be ultimately found to express the 
actual total of indigenous phanerogams. But the question need not be 
discussed here, and if in the meantime absolute records of the appear¬ 
ance of non-indigenous species be supplied, the precise proportion of 
introduced to indigenous species at various periods in the history of the 
islands can easily be ascertained when their flora shall have been com¬ 
pletely investigated. 



















255 


But a relative proportion is only less useful than an absolute one 
would be, and if we take 1000 as a convenient approximation to the 
actual total we may compare the state of affairs in 1866 with that in 
1890. In this case we must confine ourselves to introduced phanero¬ 
gams only, and exclude the three cryptogams that have been introduced 
during the interval between 1866 and 1890. The following are the 
I’esults :— 


70 

1866. Pi’oportion of introduced to indigenous species = ^ 


Percentage of introduced species 


=—or.mv. 

146 


1890. Proportion of introduced to indigenous species = or, 1 : 7. 


„ Percentage of introduced species 


= J^or,12-7n„. 


The greater number of these introduced plants are herbaceous ; but 
the proportion of woody species is slowly increasing, as the following 
figures shew :— 


1866. Pi-oportion of woody to herbaceous species = — or, 1 : 37. 

• ^ 

2 

„ Percentage of woody species = — or, 2'63°/o* 

7 

1890. Proportion of woody to herbaceous species = r— or, 1 : 20. 

j.oy 

7 

„ Percentage of woody species = — oi*, 4‘79°/o- 

XtjO 


Human agency is responsible for the introduction of the whole of 
this non-indigenous element in the Flora of the Andamans. That it is 
directly responsible for the introduction of such species as have been 
intentionally introduced that have subsequently become spontaneous is 
self-evident; that it is equally directly responsible for the unintention¬ 
ally introduced weeds is hardly less plain. They are with very few 
exceptions the’ commonest of Indian road-side and rice-field weeds 
whose seeds would readily be found mixed with imported grain or 
attached to the belongings of convict immigrants or of the police sepoys 
of the Settlement. This mode of introduction explains not only the 
occurrence of the weeds of dry ground but of the majority of the marsh 
species, such as Mygrophila, Jussicea, Ludwigia, as well. And species 
of the only class for which this explanation is not altogether satis¬ 
factory— water-plants like Monochoria, Geratopteris, or Ipomcsa aqua- 
tica —nevertheless owe their introduction indirectly to human agency, 

45 


256 


since but for the existence of the Settlement the ditches and pools in 
which they occur would not exist. The agency of winds, so often 
supposed to be highly effective, suggests itself for very few of the 
species, the most probable being the Selaginella and the Gheilantlies ,— 
almost the only posssible one among phanerogams being the Galotropis. 
But if these be wind-introduced species then as regards all three 
the questions at once arise ;—why were they not to be found in 1866 ? 
and, why are they only to be found within the limits of the Settlement 
now ? And as regards Selaginella a closer enquiry makes the agency 
of wind highly improbable, for it is as yet only to be found on Ross 
Island, although there, as it happens, it is exceedingly common. Now 
Ross Island is the part of the Settlement that is in immediate inter¬ 
course with Burma and India, and unless it has been imported as a weed 
one can hardly explain its absence from the rest of the Settlement 
where the conditions are quite as favourable for its existence as they are 
on Ross. As regards Galotrojpis too there is a striking fact to record. 
It happens to be the chief food-plant of a particular species of but¬ 
terfly— Danais genutia —which is dispersed throughout India and Burma. 
This buttei-fly was long supposed to be absent from the Andamans, but 
within the past few years it has been sparingly reported thence.* 
It thus seems as if till the establishment of its food-plant in the Settle¬ 
ment this butterfly was not known from the Andamans. To what 
agency the introduction of Danais genutia itself is due it is foreign to the 
purpose of this paper to enquire, but it is a Suggestive fact that once 
the food-plant had become established the butterfly appeared. And the 
absence of the butterfly while there was no evidence of the presence of 
the plant seems pi’esumptive evidence that the plant was not present 
till very recently, and that, therefore, human agency is not merely in¬ 
directly responsible for its introduction, by providing conditions suitable 
for the survival of wind-conveyed seeds, but is directly responsible, from 
the unintentional conveyance of its seeds along with grain or in some 
other way. For it is long since these suitable conditions have come 
into existence, and wind-agency, if a factor at all, is in these latitudes 
a fairly constant one. 

Human agency being so completely responsible, one might hope 
that the channels of introduction of particular species, which must 
coincide with the routes of traffic between the Settlement and the 
adjacent mainland, could be easily ascertained. But this is far from 
being the case. These traffic routes are :— 

* This information was offered by Mr. L. de Niceville in the course of a brief 
conversation that followed the reading of this paper at the meeting of the Asiatic 
Society of Bengal in April 1890. 

46 


267 


1. Calcntta to Port Blair; implying introduction from Northern 
India and especially the Gangetic plain. 

2. Port Blair to Rangoon; implying introduction from Lower 
Burma. 

3. Port Blair to Madras; implying introduction from Southern 
India. 

4. Moulmein to Port Blair; implying introduction from Tenas- 
serim—a route used by native craft. 

5. Port Blair to the Nicobar Islands ; implying introduction from 
these—the Nicobars are a dependency of the Settlement at Port Blair. 

The distribution of the majority of these introduced species is so 
wide that (with the exception of 4 species whose introduction has al¬ 
most certainly been confined to the Rangoon or the Moulmein route 
and other 4 almost certainly restricted to the Madras or the Calcutta 
route) any one of them may have equally well reached the Settlement 
by any or all of these routes. This is best shewn by a tabular view of 
the species thus introduced. 


Table II. Distributional features of the Non-indigenous element in 
the Flora of the Andamans. 


CosmoDolitan in the Tronics. 

62 




Indigenous in the Old World . 



65 

In other continents besides Asia .. 


36 

Confined to Asia. 


29 


Throughout South-Eastern Asia . 

21 



Confined to India or only extending westward 




from India .. 

4 



Confined to Burma and Malaya or only extend¬ 




ing eastward thence .. 

4 



Indigenous in the Hew World, but now cosmopolitam or nearly so .. 

19 


It may therefore be concluded that there is a practical indifference 
displayed as regards route; here, as everywhere else, when man is en¬ 
gaged in cultivation he involuntarily introduces weeds, and here as else¬ 
where a certain proportion of the species introduced by him for economic 
or for aesthetic reasons escape and become spontaneous. 

It has been already said that the present Settlement occupies the 
site of an earlier one. This earlier settlement was founded under the 

47 





















258 


name of Port Cornwallis by Lieut. Blair* in 1789, in obedience to orders 
issued in September of that year. In November 1792 orders were issued 
for the removal of the Settlement to another and more spacious hai'bour 
in North Andaman ; to this new settlement the original name Port 
Cornwallis was again applied. It is nowhere distinctly stated, though, 
considering the transfer of name from the old settlement to the new, it 
is highly probable, that old Port Cornwallis was entirely abandoned in 
1792. We know, however, that in 1796 orders were issued for the re¬ 
moval of the whole establishment to Penang. The doubtful point, so 
far as our present enquiry is concerned, is the length of time prior to 
the establishment of the present Settlement that its site was exposed to 
influences favourable for the active introduction of non-indigenous 
species. But we know that altogether these influences only existed for 
six seasons and could only have been active during three seasons ; probably 
they only existed at all during these three seasons. The present Settle¬ 
ment was commenced in March 1858 ; Mr. Kurz visited it during April- 
July 1866 ; to the eight seasons (1858-66) that had passed between the 
foundation of the Settlement and the date of that visit we must therefore 
add three more seasons (1789-92) in order to make up the whole period 
during which the non-indigenous species recorded by Mr. Kurz were 
being introduced. Even if the original site was not wholly abandoned 
in 1792 the subsequent seasons (1792-96) may be neglected without 
producing any appreciable error. Assuming, therefore, that a period of 
eleven seasons has been responsible for the naturalisation and inti’oduc- 
tion of the species in the two lists for 1866 we are able to calculate the 
rates of these processes and to compare them with the rates between 
1866 and 1890. These are shewn in the following table :— 


Table III .—Bate of Introduction of Non-indigenous Species. 


Non-indigenous species na¬ 
turalised. 

During Period I. 
Prior to 1866 (1789-92 + 
1858-66) =11 seasons. 

During Period 11. 

Bet. 1866 & 1890, (1866-90) 
= 24 seasons. 


No. 

Rate 

No. 

Rate 


of species. 

per annum. 

of species. 

per annum. 

Cultivated plants introduced 





during Period I ... 

15 

1-36 

14 

0-58 

Cultivated plants introduced 
during Period II 



9 

0-37 

Weeds of cultivation 

61 

5-54 

56 

233 

Totals ... 

76 

6-90 

79 

3-28 


* The name of the 1789 Settlement having been transferred to the one founded 
in 1792, the present Settlement, which occupies the site of the 1789 one and which 
dates from March 1858, has been named Port Blair in honour of the original 
founder. The name Port Cornwallis is still used to designate the site of the Settle¬ 
ment in North Andaman that existed from 1792 to 1796. 

48 













259 


The rate per annum for the second period requires a slight correction 
by the deduction from it of the rate per annum of disappearance of natur¬ 
alised species. We have seen that one introduced plant occurring spon¬ 
taneously in 1866 was only under cultivation in 1889 and 1890 and that 
three of the 1866 weeds were not met with in 1889 or 1890. Tliese 4 
species, therefore, give a disappearance rate of or 0T6 species per 

annum, and the corrected rate for Period II is thus 3-28 —O J 6, or 3-12 
species per annum. 

When we find on comparing the two periods that the rate of in¬ 
troduction in the second is only 3T2 species, as compared with 6-90 in 
the first, we naturally endeavour to find some explanation of the dis¬ 
crepancy. But, unfortunately, no very satisfactory explanation offers 
itself. So far as cultivated species are concerned, we are not in a posi¬ 
tion to compare the 15 naturalised species of 1866 with the 23 similar 
species of 1890, but only with those 9 species that had been both intro¬ 
duced and naturalised subsequent to 1866. The proportions indicated 
by these two classes being 1-36 : 0-37 evidences a rate of naturalisation 
per annum 3| times as great for the earlier as for the later period. But 
when the circumstances of the case are considered we are not surprised 
that the difference should be so great; we are, rather, astonished at its 
being so small. Owing to the abandonment of the 1789 Settlement the 
species that had been introduced while it existed were left to their fate, 
and it would be no more than reasonable to expect that when the new 
Settlement was founded in 1858, and when Mr. Kurz visited it in 1866, 
the majority of the common tropical cultivated species had already be¬ 
come fairly naturalised. So far, however, was this from being the case 
that we find there were in 1866 only 15 such species naturalised, and 
we are compelled to conclude either, that the original settlement was 
very ill provided for, or that the species which on a priori grounds we 
might consider likely to hold their own in the struggle for existence in 
an abandoned settlement are really far from being able to do so. Now 
not only is there no ground for supposing that the Settlement was ill- 
provided for, but there is ample proof, from the evidence that exists of a 
direct and extensive reciprocal correspondence between its founders and 
the first Superintendent of the recently established Hon’ble Company’s 
Botanic Garden at Calcutta, that the number of species introduced at Port 
Cornwallis was, for a Settlement so young, unusually high. We are com¬ 
pelled, therefore, to accept the other explanation and to conclude that 
cultivated species are not as a rule able to exist when they have to 
struggle on equal terms with a native jungle. Without mentioning other 
instances, we may refer to the lists of Gucurbitacece and Leguminosce pre¬ 
sent in 1866 as cultivated plants only, yet in 1890 beginning to occur 

49 


260 


spontaneously and appearing likely as time goes on to increase perceptibly 
the numbers of the non-indigenous flora. The greater number of these 
must have certainly been introduced in the 1789-92 period, and many of 
them are such as at first sight suggest for themselves the possibility of 
survival. 

Perhaps, however, it ought not to surprise us greatly that species 
which readily appear spontaneously elsewhere and which are appearing 
spontaneously in the Andamans now, should, if they were previously in¬ 
troduced, have perished between 1792 and 1858. Most of them are plants 
that, when they do escape from cultivation and appear spontaneously, 
affect such situations as waste places, rubbish heaps, road-sides, hedge¬ 
rows and margins of clearings,—situations that have at least this in 
common, that they afford their denizens abundance of air and light. 
Many of them too are herbaceous, or at most fruticose, and the native 
jungle as it reinvades the abandoned clearings overshadows them and 
either chokes them completely, or by merely preventing them from 
flowering, makes their fate only a matter of time. Even trees that seem 
quite naturalised in clearings must soon succumb to the weight of creepers 
that rapidly overload them in a forest. 

If, however, the survival of even a small proportion of the cultivated 
species abandoned in 1792 will suffice to explain the higher rate of na¬ 
turalisation during Period I, deducible from the figures in Table III 
(Carica Papaya and Cocos nucifera are excellent examples of such sur¬ 
vival), there is no similar explanation possible for the higher rate of weed- 
introduction during the same period. A considerable number must have 
been already introduced by 1792, and, though many doubtless yielded to 
the influences adverse for naturalised cultivated species, weeds are often 
proverbially tenacious of life and a good few, as the notes against them 
show, in place of avoiding the jungle are actually penetrating into it. 
Taken altogether we find that the rate of introduction during the first 
period was 2^ times as high as it has been during the second, and the 
most probable explanation of this higher early rate of weed introduction 
appears to be that in the dirty grain of an Indian bazaar seeds of most 
of the commoner Indian weeds are certain to be present. This being 
the case so many weeds become introduced with the very earliest sowings 
of any grain that the subsequent rate of introduction of species can be but 
small. And it is highly probable that for the same reason the rate of weed- 
introduction becomes year by year diminished. Unfortunately it has not 
occurred to any one to make observations on these weeds during the 
interval 1858-66 or 1866-90. And without repeated observations after 
short intervals of time, especially towards the commencement of a 
settlement, it is impossible to test the adequacy of this explanation. 
50 


261 


But it is not improbable that by the close of another period equal 
in length to the second the annual fall in the rate of introduction and, 
indeed, the annual rate of introduction itself will have become very 
small. 

There is not likely to be the same falling ofE in the rate of naturalis¬ 
ation of intentionally introduced species. For, as the Settlement extends, 
localities suitable for the spontaneous appearance of already introduced 
species become year by year more numerous and at the same time the 
number of species capable of naturalisation becomes increased. 

We find on briefly reviewing the results of our enquiry :— 

1. That the total number both of naturalised and of unintentionally 
inti’oduced species constantly increases. 

2. That the rate of naturalisation of intentionally introduced species 
has hitherto been lower than the rate of introduction of unintentionally 
introduced species. 

3. That in both cases the rate has been lower for the second period 
(1866-90) than for the first (prior to 1866). 

4. That this lower rate for the second period is more apparent than 
real, and is probably due as regards naturalised species to the survival of 
some cultivated species left to their fate when the early Settlement 
(1789-92) was abandoned, and as regards weeds to the fact that the 
greater number of common Indian weeds are necessarily introduced with 
the earliest sowings of grain. 

5. That in both cases the rate has now probably become nearly 
uniform, but that while for naturalised species it is steady or even uni¬ 
formly increasing, for weeds it is probably uniformly decreasing. 

The first three conclusions are borne out by the facts contained in 
the lists of species : the fourth is an expression of opinion, which it is 
unfortunately now impossible either to endorse or to refute as regards 
the Andamans ; it is, however, a question worthy of attention during the 
initial stages of any subsequent similar settlement: the last it will be 
easy for some future student of the subject to finally dispose of. 

In concluding, the writer wishes to express his great obligations to 
Col. Cadell, v. C., Chief Commissioner of the Andamans, but for whose 
kind assistance it would have been impossible to collect so many species 
during his short stay at Port Blair; also to Dr. Gr. King, f. r. s., c. i. b., 
for his kindness in supplementing the collection of 1889 with many 
specimens collected in April 1890. 


51 




'f : U*.(!'.>’r . ^ i'-’itf'ij''-♦T 

tthi j'. '»**.>ii‘ ‘"’*>1 w 4’*'l U^5fll" 'M 

* 

‘lifijy.'>.{1 .'•■■ 

! .wrn.i*' * ■ • 

’ w r>>-4 (jj - 




f}i\j*i mv<^ 

Iff' ='• I'.f?- 





I) 


. .♦2*11 


I 

■r.ini 


«\i 

■ur.-. . .»*»'<■’ ' 

4/fi: t . . 


' ■ ■A-i'JJ'V’'f^ 

•4 ^ i-U nt» nrA^ I' . ' '*;,), 

>1 Aa.MUtf 

; fO 

; • <>(* •/♦-‘•■•'•is-*;*-. 

V «. •'■ i 

X*'l'**' '• A^i '.' '.i 

y "• J-,,>j.->i *4 • ■';> fr '■'■■ ■ 

► oi 'V'' • '.ij 'V •' ' '^••1 

lirisM'jilf'»*1 / i', - • ■ : • ' • •-• 1 '■• •■• .'< ’slj; •? 

'■• .^*'1 ^ . •■ '' •• I ••> ' ; iflo : , ■ , , ,• *>^j? f 

-IJji'/ ; . . 'O t 

,iv 1".. ■. ,' ■ .' . ia 

y^;'noi*n^f4'«! '•» -i ;-"' -» -■ -i' 

I a*,(ft,->^# y til^iit (*$ dtfl’i ♦<-'.•,; {sfl 

: i':r'‘i rt4i ■.).r'H«*.ir-J»‘*j''.' ji? U'-.-i! j'' 

r- •♦...--. 4 /■> > iCKfci^Kn*'^' irt I v'VliU ' ■ -rji.-f, 






f<t 


;^i- 





From the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LIX, Part II, No. 4, 

1890. 


N atural History Notes from H. M.’s 1. M. Survey Steamer 
“Investigator,” Commander R. F. Hoskyn, R, R., Commanding-^ 
No. 17. A List of Liam and Island Plants.—By D. Prain. 

[Received and read—7th May 1890.] 

§ Introductory. 

Diamond Island is a small lozenge-shaped islet off the Arracan 
coast. It is situated at the mouth of the Bassein River, in Long. 94° 
18' E. and Lat. 15° 51' hT., about 5 miles from Pagoda Point, 8 from 
Cape Negrais, and 9 or 10 from the lighthouse on Alguada reef. Its 
length is somewhat under a mile and a half, and it is about three quar¬ 
ters of a mile wide. The H. E. and S. W. corners which terminate its 
longer axis rise rather abruptly from the sea. Except, however, at the 
extreme eastern end its shore all round is rather bluff and rises rapidly 
to what is rather a central small plateau than a ridge, the general level 
of this central portion being about sixty feet above the sea. There are 
three small breaks, however’, in the sea-face; a little water-channel, dry 
in November, opens to the north; another, with a very little water in 
November, opens to the south; a third, somewhat larger and quite near 
to the last, has at one time found its way to the sea through the small 
patch of flat land on the east, but a bund having been thrown across its 
course, about 100 yards from the sea, its channel has been converted into 
a tank about 150 yards long and 40 wide. 


53 


272 


The island is said never to have been occupied by the Burmese, and 
has evidently been originally densely wooded. 

The greater part of it is indeed densely wooded still, but a corner 
has been completely cleared between the watercourse that has been 
converted into a tank and the watercourse that passes south. On the 
cleared high ground between these two streams stands a telegraph office 
with a house for the telegraph-master attached ; a little way off are 
servants’ quarters. The clearing has been extended across this latter 
stream for a short distance, so as to provide a site for a shelter-hut for 
Bassein pilots while they await vessels bound for that port. Between 
the tank-bund and the sea, but nearer to the tank and close to its over¬ 
flow, stand two Burmese huts occupied by collectors of turtles’ eggs; 
between these huts and the beach is situated a small European grave¬ 
yard. At the outlet of the other streamlet and opposite the safest 
landing place is a boat shed; from this point eastward for about 400 
yards—along the sea-view of the telegraph-office, in fact—the jungle 
has been cleared away down to the beach. Everywhere else the jungle 
along the sea-face of tlie island remains intact. A plantain garden and 
a paddock of considerable size have been cleared on the central plateau 
behind the telegraph-office ; elsewhere the jungle remains untouched; 
altogether between two-thirds and three-fourths of the surface of the island 
has not been interfered with. The beach itself consists of deep soft sand 
in which the streamlets disappear before they reach the sea; at low tide, 
however, long reefs, extending south and west of the island proper for half 
a mile or more, are laid bare. On the east side, where the telegraph cable 
lands, no reefs appear; at the north-west corner they do, but only ex¬ 
tend seaward for 50 or 60 yards. The reefs consist of the same sand¬ 
stone that forms the Arracan Yomah and that appears again first in the 
Andaman and afterwards in the Nicobar group of islands; they are 
altogether without coral. 

The reefs and pools between them are remarkably destitute of 
marine vegetation, Padina pavonia and Caulerpa clavifera being the 
principal species, and both being in very small quantity. Not only are 
there very few groioing Algae, but very few are washed ashore ; these 
consist chiefly of a small green Sargassa. The absence of the submarine 
meadows of marine Hydrocharidce-, so characteristic of the otherwise 
similar pools among the coral-encrusted reefs of the Great Coco, is very 
striking. There is no mangrove belt on any. part of the shore, unless it 
be considered as represented by some small patches of Avicennia offici¬ 
nalis on the reefs about 30 paces from the beach; the individual plants 
send their roots along the seams between the layers of sandstone for 
considerable distances, and these give off rootlets that rise vertically 
54 


tlirougli the sand and mnd, exposing to the water of the sea at high tide, 
to the air and the sun at low tide, from 6 inches to a foot of a structure 
as thick as the little finger and of the consistence of solali pith. The 
jungle along the south and east sides of the island commences at the 
edge of the sandy beach, the roots of the trees being washed by the 
waves at very high tides ; the trees that grow at this line are Thespesia 
populnea, Pongamia glahra, PrytTirina indica, Terminalia Gatappa, Stephe- 
gyne diversifolia, and Ficus Bumphii. East of the cleared part in front 
of the telegraph office and round as far as the graveyard, are a number 
of large Tamarind trees; it is not improbable that these have been 
planted. One specimen of Terminalia Catappa growing close beside the 
boat house differed from all the others in being in flower. There is no 
doubt that this particular tree is T. Gatappa, and there is hardly a doubt 
that it is an introduced tree. But that the others (and it is a plentiful 
species in Diamond Island) which were all, like those on the coast 
near Port Blair in the Andamans, and like those seen a week later on 
Table Island and the Great Coco, in almost ripe fruit in ISTovember and 
December, are quite wild and indigenous in the island scarcely admits 
of a doubt.* Underneath these Gees along the south side occur Hibiscus 
tiliaceus, not plentifully, however, and, especially towards the south-we st 
angle of the island, Hesmodium umbellatum. On the west side of the 
island, which is the most weather-beaten side, the trees are not so tall, 
and they are fewer in number, though all these species except Pongamia 
appeal*. But close to the beach we find there is a dense hedge-like mass 
of Pesmodium ^imbellatum, Tahernaemontana crispa, Premna integrifolia 
and Glerodendron inerme, with here and there some bushes of Vitex 
Negundo. All these species occur on the north side of the island also, 
and at the extreme north-east corner there is a considerable patch o:^ 
Citettarda speciosa/' All round the island Canavalia ensiformis is plenti- '• 
ful; it is associated on the western sea-face with Pueraria pliaseoloides, j 
Ipomoea grandiflora and Iporioea digitata; the last named species is/ 
common also in the interior^' On the south side a form of Capparis 
sepiaria, the most plentiful of the interior climbers, comes to the very 
outer limit of the jungle all along; it is here and there accompanied by 
Golubrina asiatica. There are several patches of Ipovioea hiloha on the 
beach, but the species is not so common as it usually is in such situa¬ 
tions ; and Ipomoea denticulata, which has not been generally believed 
to occur so far north, is many times more plentiful. Hear the mouths 
of all three streamlets, and also at the almost bare south-western corner 
of the island, there are considerable patches of Cyperus pennahis. The 
cleared space near the telegraph-oflfice is mainly covered by a short turf 


* As regards Great Coco Island a doubt on tlie point is impossible 


55 



274 


in whicli Eleusine indica is the only grass that appears in tufts; behind 
the boat house is a tangled patch of Ooluhrina asiatica and Gaesalpinia 
Bonducella; on the road leading from the boat house to the telegraph 
office is a quantity of Ipomoea denticulata, at the back of the office a 
large patch of Adenostemma viscosum, between the office and the servants’ 
quarters a lai’ge patch of Ocimum iasilicum, lower down and near the 
tanlc two or three extensive patches of Cassia alata. Vernonia cinerea is 
very common all over the older clearing, but Ageratum conyzoides, 
usually such a common Aveed, is quite rare as yet. Urena lobata is com¬ 
mon towai’ds the edge of the clearing nearest the jungle, but is less com¬ 
mon than Melochia corcliorifolia is; the latter is also the commonest 
weed in the newer clearing in the centre of the Island. Scoparia dulcis 
is plentiful in both the old clearing and the new, but the common Sidas 
are conspicuous by their absence. The wet soil near the edge of the 
tank is covered with broad patches of Euphorbia thymifolia; associated 
with it is Vandellia Crustacea which is, however, less plentiful: nearer 
the tank still, or even growing in the shallow water at the eastern end, 
are Sphenoclea zeylanica, Eydrolea zeylanica, Limnophila conferta, Scir- 
pus articulatus and Geratopteris thalictroides, all very profuse. In the tank 
itself grows Nymphaea Lotus, but not very commonly; the red form is 
not present*; Nymphaea stellata too is absent; Nelumbium speciosum, 
however, is there. Perhaps the most interesting water plant present is 
Limnanthemum parvifolium, only known previously from the transgan- 
getic peninsula through a gathering in Chittagong by Hooker and 
Thomson and one in Tavoy by Wallich. The present gathering thus 
comes in midway between these two and perhaps indicates that the 
species only requires to be looked for in order to be found elsewhere in 
lower Burma. Besides the Tamarinds already referred to, there are 
near the houses of the Burmans some trees of Moringa pterygosperma 
that have evidently been introduced ; in the same situation there are 
also a few Coco-nut trees and some Plantains. In the central clearing 
the telegraph master shewed me what he imagined to be Mangosteen 
trees belonging to him ; the trees are, however, not trees of Garcinia man- 
gostana but of Garcinia cornea. He had, beside these, some trees of 
Citrus medica and G. Aurantium not doing very well; there were close by 
also some trees of each of the species Myristica glauca, Artocarpus 
Ghaplasha and Antiaris toxicaria, all either planted or preserved when the 
clearing was made; the present telegraph-master, who has been there 
many years, says they have been there since before his time. In his plan¬ 
tain garden, where he has some of the finest fruit-giving varieties and all 

* In Great Coco Island it is only the red variety of N. Lotus that occurs in its 
small la.lce. 

66 


275 


bearing well, there are the ordinary tropical vegetables ; the only one that 
is noticeable from our present point of view is the bird’s-eye chillie 
{Capsicum minimum) which here, as in the Andamans and in Great 
Coco Island, has spread itself everywhere about the clearing and is even 
penetrating into the adjacent jungle. In front of the telegraph-office 
there are two rows of very weather-beaten Coco-nut trees of which only 
14 are now left; probably if planted or sown along the edge of the beach 
they would have done much better; there is not at present, it may be 
remarked, a single Coco-nut tree in this situation anywhere round the 
island. 

The commonest tree throughout the island is Bombax malabaricum, 
and next to it in point of numbers is Albizzia procera; towards the 
western end of the central table-land the latter is the more plentiful 
species, those trees at the extreme edge being stunted and weather-worn. 
Among the other trees and shrubs observed were Chailletia gelonioides 
(very abundant on the south side of the island,) Gonnarus gibbosus, 
Ellipanthus sterculiaefolius, Gnestis ramijlora (also very abundant on the 
southern slope of the island,) Lagersiroemia Flos-Beginae (a common 
tree on the Eastern part of the island,) Ixora rugulosa, Pavetta indica, 
Psychotria adenopliylla, Ehretia laevis, Heterophragma adenophyllum (not 
uncommon,) Bridelia tomentosa and Flueggia microcarp a (both frequent,) 
Ficus hispida (not frequent,) Macaranga Tanarius (the only Macaranga 
present and common on the south side of the island.) A common and 
very striking undershrub is Leea parallela; in the opener ground on 
the western weather-beaten side Osbechia cliinensis, Vernonia cinerea and 
Anisomeles ovata are common herbs ; along the water course leading to 
the north side of the island Adiantum lunulatum occurs, not frequently, 
however, and it does not appear to be anywhere else on the island; 
the only other ferns met with were the water-fern Oeratopteris, and a 
climbing species, Lygodium flexuosum. Quite as striking as the absence 
of ferns is the absence of any species of Selaginella ; still more striking, 
perhaps, considering the proximity of the island to Burma, is the 
absence of Bamboos. 

y^n the interior the climbers met with were Gyclea peltata (frequent,) 
Abrus precatorius fexceedingly common,) MucjmiLin onosp erma, fEntada 
scandens, Luffa cegyptiaca (only on the western side and, like the Cap- 
paris and like Ipomoea digitata, spreading over the sea-face as well as 
common in the interior jungle.) Willughbeia edalis (only met with 
once,) Ichnocarpus frutescens and Dreyeu volubilis (both common,) Erycibe 
paniculata (spreading over adjacent species, but hardly a climber,) 
Thunbergia laurifolia very common, as are Dioscorea glabra and Smilax 
macrophylla; a Calamus {G. tigritms Kurz ?) forms a great part of the 

57 



interior jungle; Scindapsm officinalis is very common everywhere in the 
interior and coast zones alike and is the principal epiphyte. Not a 
single orchid was seen anywhere in the island. A few Fungi were 
found growing on dead wood; the season of the visit was apparently 
unsuitable for terrestrial species. 

The visit of H. M.’s I. M. Survey Steamer “Investigator”, in 
November 1889, to leave a survey-party is not the first scientific visit 
that has been paid to this island. Almost exactly one hundred years 
before it was visited by Captain Kyd and Lieut. Colebrooke* who in 
December 1789 determined its position, both absolutely and in relation 
to the adjacent headland on the Arracan coast. It is not probable that 
botanical collection engaged the attention of these officers; but during 
another visit by a scientific party (April 1866) in H. M s. I. M. S. 

“ Prince Arthur ” Mr. Kurz, who was on board, landed and collected a few 
specimens. Mr. Kurz makes a very interesting remark on this visit 
which is worth repeating here;—“ I had only a few minutes stay at 
“ Diamond Island in Pegu, but I was struck, when afterwai’ds coming 
“ to the Andamans, by the similarity, nay rather identity, of the shore 
“ vegetation.”! The present collection is itself the result of only a few 
hours’ woi’k, and is larger than it otherwise could have been, owing to 
the help given by Dr. Alcock, Surgeon-Naturalist of the “ Investigator,” 
who devoted the time during which the state of the tide prevented him 
from being on the reefs to assisting the writer in obtaining specimens of 
plants. The 95 species that it includes form it is true only a part of 
what the island would yield to any one whose stay there could be pro¬ 
longed ; but it is hardly too much to assume that they are fairly re¬ 
presentative of the flora of this island. And as its geographical position 
and geological structure both point to it as the first stepping-stone in 
the series of islands connecting Arracan with Sumatra (through the 
Andamans and Nicobars) the nature of the flora seems worthy of investi¬ 
gation. 

The following is the method of presentation adopted:— 

1. A list of the plants collected is given; any interesting feature 
as regards a particular species is noted where it seems necessary to do 
so, and in every case the dissemination of the species is adverted to. 

2. A tabular view of the distribution ot the species is presented, 

* Asiatic Eesearctes, Yol. IV, p. 317; the date of this visit was 14th December 
1789. 

t Report on the Vegetation of the Andaman Islands, (1870) p. 15. Mr. Kurz uses 
the word Pegu in an extended sense which means ail Lower Burma; Diamond Island 
belongs to Arracan, not to Pegu proper; Mr. Kurz’s remark itself will be discussed 
further on. 

58 


277 


the distribution within transgangetic India being sub-divided as fol¬ 
lows :— a. Arracan, Chittagong, Assam; h. Pegu, Tenasserim, Malay 
Peninsula; c. Andamans (including Coco Islands,) Nicobars, Sumatra 
and Java. This is necessary for a proper understanding of the peculiar 
features of the flora of the island which forms (or at any rate is an ex¬ 
cellent representative of) the area wherein these three lines of distribu¬ 
tion meet and in which their species intermix. 

3. An analysis in terms of the preceding sections is undertaken 
and the arithmetical values of the various relationships computed. 

§ §. List of the Plants collected in Diamond Island. 

MENISPERMACE^. 

1. Ctclea peltata Hook. P. and Thoms. Common. 

NYMPH^ACEHl. 

2. Ntmth^a Lotus Linn. In the only tank, uncommon ; the red 
form is not present. 

3. Nelumbium speciosdm Willd. In the tank. 

CAPPARIDE^. 

4. Capparis sepiaria Linn. var. grandifolia Kurz (MSS. in Herb. 
Calcutta) ; forma ramis foliisque glabris, folds floribus et fructu quam in 
formis varietatum aliarum multo majoribus. Distrib. Table Island 
and Great Coco Island, (ipse) ; South Andaman, (Kurz). In Madura 
Island and in Bali, (Teysmann in Herb. Calcutta). In Timor and in 
Cochin-China (as Mr. Hemsley informs me) occur forms that connect 
this very distinct looking form with the typical plants. Branches green ; 
leaves regularly elliptic, i^etuse ; petioles 0'5—0*7 cm. long ; laminse 6—10 
cm. long by 4—5 cm. broad, quite glabrous both above and below, or 
with a few scattered hairs, that soon disappear, on young leaves beneath ; 
flowers 15 mm. in diam. ; pedicels 18 mm. long ; gynophore 8 mm. long ; 
fruit 12 mm. in diam. (in Java specimens) to 14 mm. (in Diamond 
Island ones). 

In the ordinary Indian plant, which also occurs without any con¬ 
siderable variation in Burma and in Perak, as well as in the S. Indian 
variety (incanescens) and in the Ceylon variety (retusella), the mea¬ 
surements are ; petiole 0'2—0 4 cm., lamina 2—3 cm. long by 1-5_2 

cm. broad; flowers 7—'12 mm. in diam., pedicels 16 mm. long ; gyno¬ 
phore 5—6 mm. long ; fruit 7—8 mm. in diameter. 

Except, however, in the greater size of all its parts—most notable 
as regards the anthers—which in var. grandifolia more than thrice exceed 

59 


278 


those in any of the other varieties—this plant differs in no essential 
charaeter from G, sepiaria, Wall. ; the ovary as in the type is glabrous, 
ovoid and pointed, the fruit is spherical and black. It is an extensive 
climber and in the interior jungle is one of the commonest species; 
it also extends into and covers the shrubby species of the coast zone. 

GUTTIFER^. 

5. Gaecinia cornea Linn. In the telegraph-house garden, cul¬ 
tivated. 

MALVACEAE. 

6. Urena lobata Linn. Clearing behind telegraph-office. 

7. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. Coast plant, south side of Island. 

8. Thespesia populnea Corr. Coast; very frequent all round the 
Island. 

9. Bombax malabaricum DC. The commonest tree in the Island. 

STERCULIACE^. 

10. Melochia corchorieolia Linn. Very common in the central 
clearing. 

RUTACE^. 

11. Citrus medica Linn. In the telegraph-house garden and else¬ 
where ; planted. 

CHAILLETIACE^. 

12. Chailletia geloniO’des Hook. f. Very abundant on the south 
side of the Island. 

RHAMNACE^. 

13. CoLUBRiNA asiatica Brongn. One large bush beside the boat¬ 
house, and here and there throughout the Island. 

AMPELIDE^. 

14. Leea parallela Wall. Very common throughout the Island. 

MORINGACE^. 

15. Moeinga pterygosperma Gaertn. Some trees near the huts 
of Burmans, between the tank and the sea. 

COHNARACE^. 

16. CoNNARUS GIBBOSUS Wall. In the interior jungle. 

17. Cnestis ramiflora Griff. Very abundant towards south side 
of Island. 

18. Ellipanthus STERCULij:roLius Brain. Coast zone, south side. 

60 


279 


LEGUMINOS^. 

19. Desmoditjm umbbllatum DC. Shore species; frequent, especi¬ 
ally on the west and north sides of the Island. 

20. Abrtjs precatoeius Linn. Very frequent everywhere in the 
Island. 

21. Ertthrika indica Lamk. A purely coast species here, as it 
also is in the Andamans and in Great Coco island. In the Great Coco 
it is, however, rather uncommon : a striking contrast with the conditions 
in Diamond Island where tliis tree forms an almost unbroken ring round 
the coast. 

22. MucunA- monosperma DC. Very common in the interior 
jungle. 

23. PuERARiA PHASEOLOIDES Benth. Common on the western sea- 
face of the Island, climbing over bushes of Taherncemontana crispa and 
creeping in the grass at the bare south-western corner of the Island, 

24. Canavalia ensiformis DC. A climber all round the coast, 

especially common on west and north sides of the island ; not met with 
in the interior. ^ 

25. PoNGAMtA GLABRA Vent. Frequent in the line of trees imme¬ 
diately behind the sandy beach. 

26. Cjssalpinia Eonbucella Ham. A thicket behind the boat¬ 
house. 

27. Cassia alata Linn. Two or three large thickets between the 
telegraph-office and the tank. 

28. Tamarindus indica Linn. Several large trees behind the 
beach, between the telegraph-office and the graveyard. 

29. Entada scandens Benth. Common all over the island. 

30. Albizzia procera Benth. A common tree, especially in the 
western half of the island ; those trees exposed to the S. W. monsoon 
are gnarled and dwarfed and weather-beaten. 

COMBRETACE^. 

31. Terminalia Catappa Linn. Frequent in the beach ring of 
trees. One tree overhanging the boat-house, and probably an intro¬ 
duced one, was in flower, in November ; the others were all, as they were 
in South Andaman and in the Great Coco, in fruit. 

MELASTOMACE^. 

32. OsBECKiA chinensis Linn.; C. B. Clarke in F. B. I. Frequent 
in the bare grassy slope at the south-western corner of the Island. The 
form present in Diamond Island differs from typic&,l 0. chinensis some¬ 
what in size and form of leaves and calyx ; in these specimens, leaves 

61 


280 


7 cm. : 3 cm., ovate, acute, base subcordate ; inflated ovary 6 mm. : 4 
mm.; tubular neck of calyx 4 mm. long: 3 mm. diam. at junction of 
inflated and tubular portions and 5 mm. diam. at mouth. The speci¬ 
mens of this gathering precisely accord with specimens collected by 
Kurz in Arracan ; they agree as to calyx with specimens collected by 
R. Scott in Pegu ; as to leaves they resemble specimens collected on 
Parasnath and in Chutia ISTagpur by T. Thomson, by Kurz, and by J. J. 
Wood. 

LTTHRACE^. 

33. Lagerstikemia Plos-Regin.s Retz. A common tree in the 
eastern part of the Island and to the north of the tank. 


CUCURBITACE^. 

34. Luffa JiGTPTiACA Mill. Rot infrequent on the western side of 
the Island. 


RUBIACE^. 

35. Stephegtne divbrsifolia Hook. f. Frequent in and immedi¬ 
ately behind the coast zone. 

36. Guettaeda speciosa Linn. Common on the north coast of the 
Island ; this appears to be the first occasion on which the species has 
been collected so far north as Arracan. 

37. IxOEA EUGOSULA Wall. Frequent in the interior; previously 
only known from Pegu and Tenasserim ; now, therefore, from Arracan 
also. 

38. Pavetta indica Linn. Common in the interior. 

39. Pstchotria adenophtlla Wall. Common in the interior. 


COMPOSITE. 

40. Yeenonia cineeea Less. Waste ground about telegraph- 
oflSice ; also on bare ground at the south-western corner of the Island. 

41. Adenostemma vkcosum Forst. var. paeviflora Hook. f. Be¬ 
hind the boat-house. 

42. Ageratum contzoidbs Linn. Only a few plants seen near the 
side of the tank. 

GOODENOYIE.^. 


43. Sc.a:vOLA Kienigii, Vahl. On the west and north shores; 
common. 

CAMPANULACE^. 

44. Sphenoclba zetlanica Gsertn. At the mai’gin of the tank 
eastern end; profuse. 

62 


281 


APOCYNE^. 

45. WiLLTJGHBEiA EDULis Roxb. In the interior jungle, only once 
met with. 

46. Tabernaimontana crispa Roxb. Very abundant on the west 
and somewhat less frequent on the north shore. A distinct northern 
extension to the distribution of this species which has been hitherto 
known from the Andamans and the Nicobars only. Follicles 3-keeled, 
green, 2*75 cm. long, 1 cm, anteroposterior, 0*75 cm. lateral diams,, 
sessile avicular (beak slender recurved 6 mm. long) semicircular (ven- 
trally convex, dorsum straight or very slightly concave), when opened 
flat 2*25 cm. across; endocarp brilliant scarlet. 

47. Icijnocarpus prutescens R. Br. Extensive climber; frequent 
in the interior. Flowers sweet smelling ; corolla here pure white, not 
purple. 


ASCLEPIADACE^. 

48. Dregea volubilis Benth. In the interior jungle ; frequent. 

GENTIANAOE^. 

49. Limnanthbmum parvieolium Griseb. Plentiful near the west¬ 
ern end of the tank and the only species present. A species with, so 
far as is known, a somewhat detached distribution.* It is plentiful in 
the western Deccan and in Ceylon. This gathering is intermediate as 
to situation between that of Hooker and Thomson (Chittagong) and 
that of Wallich (Tavoy)—the only two previous gatherings recorded 
from the Trans-gangetic Peninsula; perhaps it indicates that it would be 
oftener found if particularly looked for. ^ 


HYDROPHTLLACE^. 

50. Htdrolea zetlanica Vahl. Swampy ground at west end of 
tank: plentiful. 


BORAGINACE^. 

51. Ehretia LiEviS Roxb. Common ; all the specimens from this 
locality are absolutely glabrous ; there is no indumentum or any trace of 
such, even on young branches, on young leaves, or on the youngest flower- 
buds. 


* Another species with a similarly detached distribution is L.\aurantiacum Dalz., 
a common species in the western Deccan and Ceylon (from Bombay southwards), 
and hitherto supposed to be confined te this area. Excellent specimens have, how¬ 
ever, been sent (14th December 1889) by H. T. Peter, Esq., from Narayangunge near 
Dacca, and identified by Dr. G. King, f. k. s. 


63 


282 


CONVOLVULACE^. 

52. - Ertcibb paniculata Roxb. var. pegubnsis, Clarke. A small 
subscandent wide-spreading tree; leaves elliptic cuneately acuminate ; 
at botb ends secondary nerves scarcely visible beneath with dense pan- 
cles, white flowei’S and rusty-tomentose shoots. The present locality 
stands intermediate between those hitherto recorded for the variety— 
Chittagong (Hooker,) and Moulmein (several collectors). 

53. IpOMiEA GRANDIPLORA Lamk. Very common, climbing amongst 
the Coast species on the western and northern sides of the Island, and 
also for a little way amongst the adjacent inland species. 

54. I. DTGITATA Linn. Common with the preceding on the western 
side of the Island. 

55. I. DENTICULATA Choisy. By the side of the stream between 
the boat-house and the pilots’ house, beside the path from the boat-house 
to the telegraph-office, along the cleared slope between the telegraph- 
office and the sea, and again at the north-east corner of the Island, al¬ 
ways plentiful. The distribution of this species, so far as was known in 
1883, was (F. B. I. iv, 208) “ Malay Peninsula ; from Mergui south- 
“ wards. Ceylon ; near the sea at Gallo. Hicobars,” its further dis¬ 
tribution being “Malaya, Australia, Polynesia, Seychelles.” But it is 
now known to extend further up the Bay. It occurs in the Andamans, 
is exceedingly plentiful on the Great Coco, was collected by Kurz at 
Kobah on the shores of S. Burma during his latest journey, is very 
plentiful here in Diamond Island, and was collected by Kurz at Akyab 
which is still further north. In the Great Coco a curious feature in this 
species and the next is their habitat. This species converts raised 
coral “ shingle ” beaches into purple meadows ; on this shingle not a 
single plant of J. biloha is to be met with ; flat crescentic stretches of 
level sand at the heads of bays are completely covered with I. biloha 
and not a plant of I. denticulata is to be seen. Whenever a little cleared 
patch of soil occurs near the sea the two species appear in it plentifully 
side by side. 

56. I. BILOBA Forsk. Sand-beaches on north and west side of 
island, not plentiful. Also with the preceding species between the 
boat-house and the telegraph-office. 

SOLANACE^. 

57. Capsicum minimum Roxb. In the telegraph-master’s garden, 
cultivated j but also all over the central clearing, spontaneous. 

SCROPULARIACE.^. 

58. Limnophila conperta Benth.; Hook. f. In marshy ground 
along with Hydrolea. 

64 


283 


59. Vandbllia CRUSTACEA Bentb. On wet banks of tlie tank at 
west side. 

60. ScoPARiA DULCis Linn. In cleared space behind telegrapb- 
office. 

BIGNONIACE^. 

61. Heterophragma adenophyllum Seem. ^ Frequent in tbe in¬ 
terior. 

ACANTHACE^. 

62. Thunbergia laurieolia Bindley. Common. 

VERBENACE^, 

63. Premna integrifolia R. Br. Littoral species ; common. 

64. ViTBX Negundo Linn. Leaves mostly 4-pinnate. On tbe sea¬ 
shore of north side of Island, but only in two places. 

65. Clerodendron inermb Gaertn. Very common on tbe coast 
here, and also throughout tbe whole of the Andaman group. 

66. Avicbnnia officinalis Linn. On the sandstone reefs, but 
only in two or three places, to the south and west sides of the Island 

LABIATE. 

67. OciMUM Basilicum Linn. Waste ground behind servants’ 
quarters of telegraph-office buildings. This is only Ocimum that has 
here become spontaneous. In South Andaman the true Tulsi (0. sanc¬ 
tum) is the one that has become naturalised ; in the Laccadive group it 
is the Bam-tulsi (0. gratissimum) that occurs as if wild. 

68. Anisomeles ovata R. Br. Here and there in opener parts of 
the interior and plentiful on the bare part at the south-west corner of 
the Island ; not in the cleared space near the telegraph-office. 

MYRISTICACE^. 

69. Mtristica glauca Blume. Only one (female) tree seen, near 
the Garcinia. 

EUPHORBIACE^. 

70. Euphorbia thtmifolia Burm. On wet banks of the tank 

plentiful ; seeds red. ’ 

71. Bridelia tomentosa Blume. Plentiful; absolutely glabrous 
in every part and in this respect quite like specimens collected by Kurz 
in Pegu. 

72. Flueggia microcarpa Blume. A small tree; common in the 
interior. 


65 


284 


73. Macaranga Tanarius Muell.-Arg. Plentiful on the south 
side of the Island. This locality is a very distinct extension northwards 
for the distribution of this species which has been hitherto known only 
from South Andaman, ISlicobars, Perak and Malacca. Dr. King has very 
kindly verified this determination for me. 

URTICACE^. 

74. Artocarpus Chaplasha Roxb. Only once seen, near the Gar- 
cinia and Myristica, 

75. Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. Only once seen ; the tree is close 
beside the preceding and is said by the Burmans (turtle-collectors) to 
be the only one on the Island; it may have been planted, but it is 
difiicult to suppose by whom. 

76. Pious Rumphii Blume. Littoral; a very lai-ge tree, common¬ 
est on the south side, but plentiful all round the Island. 

77. P. HiSPiDA Linn. f. In the interioi’, not very common. 

SOITAMIKE^. 

78. Musa sapiextum Linn. Planted in the telegraph-master’s 
garden. 

DIOSCOREACE^. 

79. Dioscorea glabra Roxb. Common. 

LILIACE^. 

80. Smilax macrophtlla Roxb. With Calamus and Dioscorea 
forms much of the interior jungle. 

PALMED. 

81. Calamus tigrinus Kurz ? Very plentiful; not in fruit. 

82. Cocos NUCIEERA Linn. Planted only ; a double row contain¬ 
ing 14 trees in front of the telegraph-ofiice and a few others near the 
Burmans’ huts. 


AROIDEA3. 

83. ScmuAPSUS officinalis Schott. Epiphyte common in the 
coast zone and the interior also. 

CYPERACEEE. 

84. Cyperus pennatus Lamk. On all bare places round the coast 
whether grassy or rocky ; also in mud beside the tank outlet and on 
the banks of the water-course beside the boat-house. 

66 


285 

85. SciEPUS AETICULATTJS Liiiiii. In the shallow water at west end 
of tank. 

GRAMINE^. 

86. Elbu.Sine indica Gsertn. Tufts of this grass occur along the 
path from the shore to the telegraph-office. 

FILICES. 

87. Adiantum ltjnulatum Burm. Only along the water-coui-se 
on the north side of the Island. 

88. Cebatoptbeis thalicteoidbs Brongn. Common at the west 
end of the tank. 

89. Lygodium plbxuosum Sw. Common in the interior. 

FUNGI.* 

90. Hexagonia similis Berk. On dead wood ; interior. 

91. Hieneola poltteicha Mont. On dead wood : interior. 

92. Steeeum CTATHIEOEME Fries. On dead wood : interior. 

93. POLTPOEUS OCCIDENTALIS Berk. On dead wood : interior. 

ALGAE. 

94. Padina payonia Gaill. On sandstone reefs. 

95. Cauleepa clayifeea Agardh. On sandstone reefs. 


§§§ Disteibution op the Species obseeyed in Diamond Island. 


A. 

General. 

Name of Species. 

B. Special. 

Trans- 

gangetic. 

Cis-gan- 

getic. 

America. 

Africa. 

Polynesia. 

1 Australia, 

1 Asia. 

Arracan. 

Pegu. 

Andaman. 

India. 

Ceylon. 




_ 

X 

Cyclea peltata 

X 

X 


X 


— 

X 

— 

- 

X 

Nymphsea Lotus 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

X 

X 

Nelumbium speciosum 

X 

X 


X 

X 

— 

— 

- 

— 

X 

Capparis sepiaria 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

O 

o 

O 

O 

o 

VAE. grandifolia 

X 


X 

_ 

_ 


- 

— 

— 

X 

Garcinia cornea 

X 

X 

_ 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Urena lobata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


* Mr. Massee, through the good offices of Mr. Hemsley, f. e. s., has very kindly 
supplied the names of these Fungi. 


67 






























Africa. 

Polynesia. 

Australia. 

Asia. 


286 


A. General. 


Names of Species. 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hibiscus tiliaceus .. 


— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Thespesia populnea 

. • . 

— 

_ 

_ 

— 

X 

Bombax malabaricum 

**« 

+ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Melochia corchorifolia 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Citrus medica 


— 

__ 

— 

— 

X 

Chailletia gelonioides 


— 

X 

— 

X 

X 

Oolubrina asiatica ... 


— 

— 

- 

- 

X 

Leea parallela » 


— 

X 

— 

- 

X 

Moringa pterygosperma 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Conuarus gibbosus ... 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Cnestis ramiflora 


— 

- 

- 

- 

X 

Ellipanthus sterculigefolius 


— 

X 

X 

— 

+ 

Desm odium umbellatum 

. . 1 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Abrus precatoriuB 


— 

— 

X 

— 

X 

Erythrina indica ... 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Mucuna monosperma 

• •• 

— 

- 

- 

- 

X 

Pueraria pbaseoloides 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Canavalia ensiformis 

... 

— 

X 

X 

+ 

+ 

Pongamia glabra ... 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cgesalpinia Bonducella 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cassia alata 

• •• 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Tamarindus indica ... 

• • • 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Entada scandens 


— 

— 

— 

- 

X 

Albizzia procera 

... 

— 

- 

— 

— 

X 

Terminalia Catappa 


— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Osbeckia chinensis ... 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Lagerstroemia Elos-Eeginse 

• •• 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Luffa asgyptiaca 

. • 

— 

— 

— 

- 

X 

Stephegyne diversifolia 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Guettarda speciosa ... 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Ixora rugulosa 


— 

- 

— 

X 

X 

Pavetta indica 


— 

- 

- 

— 

X 

Psycbotria adenophylla 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Vernonia cinerea ... 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Adenostemma viscosum 

... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ageratum conyzoides 

... 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Scaevola Koenigii ... 

... 

X 

X 

X 

+ 

X 

Spbenoclea zeylanica 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Willughbeia edulis ... 

... 

— 

- 

— 

— 

X 

Tabernaemontana crispa 


- 

- 

- 

X 

X 

Ichnocarpus frutescens 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Dregea volubilis 



— 

— 

““ 

X 

Limnanthemum parvifolium 

... 


B, Special. 


Trans. 

Cis-gan- 

gangetio. 

getic. 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

/ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 




X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

+ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 


68 








































287 


A. 

General. 

Names of Species. 

B. Spec 

Trans- 

gangetic. 

lAL. 

Cis-gan- 

getic. 

America. 1 

Africa. 

Polynesia. 

Australia. 

CQ 

<1 

Pi 

C« 

o 

a 

u 

Pi 

<! 

Pegu. 

Andaman. 

India. 

Ceylon. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hydrolea zeylanica... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ehretia Isevis 

X 

o 

X 

O 

X 

o 

X 

o 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

Ei’ycibe paniciilata ... 


y 









VAR peguensis 







X 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomoea grandiflora... 






X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

I. digitata 


y 



X 

““ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

I. denticnlata 






X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

I. biloba- ... ••• 

X 





X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Capsicum minimum 


X 



X 

— 

- 

- 

- 

X 

Limnophila conferta 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

•15 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Vandellia Crustacea 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

= 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Scoparia dulcis 

X 

X 

X 



— 

— 

- 

— 

X 

Heteropbragma adenopbyllum .. 

X 

X 

X 



— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Thunbergia laurifolia 


X 

X 


X 

- 

- 

- 

— 

X 

Premna integrifolia 

X 


X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

- 

- 

X 

Vitex Negundo ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

X 

Clerodendron inerme 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Avicennia officinalis 

X 

X 


X 

X 

- 

X 

X 

- 

X 

Ocimum Basilicum ... ..i 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 


— 


X 

Anisomeles ovata ... 

X 

X 

X 



- 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Myristica glauca 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

Euphorbia tbymifolia 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

- 

- 

X 

X 

Bridelia tomentosa ... 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

— 

X 

X 

Plueggia microcarpa ... 

X 

X 

X 

— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

Macaranga Tanarius 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

- 

- 

— 

X 

Artocarpus Ohaplasha 

X 

X 

~ 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

X 

Antiaris toxicaria ... 

X 

X 

— 

X 

— 

— 

- 

— 

- 

X 

Ficus Rumpbii ... ••• 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

-- 

- 

— 

X 

X 

F. bispida 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Musa sapientum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

_ 


X 

Dioscorea glabra ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 





X 

Smilax macropbylla... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 



X 

Calamus tigrinus ? ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cocos nucifera ... ••• 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

__ 




X 

Scindapsus officinalis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

_ 

X 

X 

Cyperus pennatus ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 


X 

_ 


X 

Scirpus articulatus ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Eleusine indica 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Adiantum lunnlatum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ceratopteris tbalictroides 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

X 

_ 

X 

X 

Lygodium flexuosum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hexagonia similis ... •*. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hirneola polytricba 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Stereum cyatbiforme 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polyporus occidentalis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Padina pavonia 






X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Caulerpa clavifera ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


69 








































288 


Examining first tlie general distribution of the Flora we find 
that, of the 95 species, 36 are species cosmopolitan in the tropics, while, on 
the other hand, no fewer than 38 are confined to Asia, Of the remain¬ 
ing 21, whose distribution is confined within the old world but extends 
beyond the limits of Asia, only four occur in Australia, Polynesia and 
Africa as well as in Asia ; two occur in Asia, Australia and Polynesia ; 
four in Asia, Australia and Africa ; and three in Asia, Polynesia and 
Africa. Six are confined to Asia and Australia, two to Asia and Africa, 
one to Asia and Polynesia. The following table shews this more clearly, 
and at the same time indicates the relationships that subsist between 
the distributional features of the species and, on the one hand, their 
habitat, on the other, their habit. 

Table I. Relationship of General Distribution to Habit and Habitat. 


Habit. 

Distributional 

Features. 

Habitat. 

o 

Eh 

Trees. | 

rS 

0 

03 

Herbs. 

Climbers. | 

Cultivated or 
planted. 

Weeds. 

Inland sp. 

Marsh sp. 

Coast sp. 

Epiphyte, i 

Saprophytes. 

Marine. 

Total. 

32 

4 

5 

18 

5 

Cosmopolitan in the Tro¬ 















pics... 

5 

8 

5 

3 

B 

.. 

4 

2 

32 

1 

... 


1 


Almost ditto : absent from 















Australia 




1 





1 

6 

2 

1 

2 

1 

Throngliont Tropics of Old 















World 




1 

4 



1 

6 

2 


2 



In Asia, Australia and 















Polynesia 



1 


1 




2 

4 


2 

1 

1 

In Asia, Australia and 















Africa 



3 


1 




4 

2 


1 

1 

L. 

In Asia, Polynesia and 















Africa 


1 




... 



2 

7 

2 

2 

2 

1 

In Asia and Australia ... 



f) 

i 





7 

1 

1 




In Asia and Polynesia ... 





"i 




1 

3 

1 


2 


In Asia and Africa 

1 



2 





3 

37 

13 

10 

3 

i’l 

Confined to Asia 

4 


23 

2 

7 

i 



37 

5 

23 

23 

30 

19 

Totals 

10 

9 

38 

10 

20 

1 

4 

3 

95 


There is no progressive feature in the general distribution of the 
species; while the highest number of any of the classes is that of 
species confined to Asia, the next highest is that of species cosmopolitan 
in the tropics. The cosmopolitan or nearly cosmopolitan species 
are however, to a large extent cultivated plants and weeds of 
waste places or marshes. In the case of the species confined to Asia 
70 












































289 


tlie proportion of forest species to tire whole is 30 : 37, or 81 per cent, 
whereas in the case of the cosmopolitan and almost cosmopolitan species 
the proportion of forest species to the whole is 10 : 39, or 25f per cent, 
only. 

To complete the account of the distribution of these species it is 
necessary to examine their special distribution throughout South¬ 
eastern Asia, From this it is possible to compute the relationships of 
the Diamond Island flora to those of the three adjacent areas Arracan- 
Assam, Pegu-Malaya, Andamans-Nicobars respectively. 

We find that 77 species are in distribution both Cis-gangetic (i. e., 
are present in India, or in Ceylon, or both) and Trans-gangetic (i. e., 
are present in some or all of the three areas whose influences meet in 
Diamond island). The remaining 17 species are Trans-gangetic only. 
So that as regards the composition of the Diamond Island flora the 
Indo-Chinese influence bears to the Indian a proportion of 95 : 77 (or 
very nearly of 9 : 7) ; in other words the Indo-Chinese influence is -^l-, 
or just under 19 per cent, stronger than the Indian. The details of 
this distribution are more compactly given in the subjoined table. 

Table II. Distrihution of the Dinmond Island species in S. E. Asia. 

Species both Cis-gai)getic and Trans-gangetic ; —. 77 

Common to all the districts . 50 

Absent from a Cis-gangetic district;— . 7 

Absent from Ceylon only. 0 i ’ 

Absent from India only {Ipomcea dentimdata)... 1 


Absent from Trans-gangetic districts j—.. lo 

Absent from Andamans-Nicobars only.. 8 

Absent from Pegu-Malaya only (Vitex Ne- 

gundo) . 1 

[This sp. is only represented in Arracan 
by the Diamond I. gathering] ; 

Absent from both Andaman and Pegu [Bre- 
gea volubilis) . 1 


Absent both from a Cis-gangetic and a Trans-gangetic dis¬ 
trict j . .. 4 

[These sp. are all absent at once from the Andamans 
and from Ceylon]. 


Species Trans-gangetic only :—.. 18 

Common to the three Trans-gangetio districts - . 10 

Distributed throughout Arracan-Assam dis¬ 
trict .. 7 

Represented in A.rracan by the Diamond I. 
gathering only . . 3 

Carried over ... 95 

71 

























290 


Brought forward ... 95 


Absent from the Andaman-Nicobar district only; . 5 

Distributed throughout Arraoan-Assam dis- 

trict. 3 

Kepresented in Arracan by the Diamond I. 
gathering only . 2 


Absent from the Pegu-Malaya district only. 2 


[These sp. are both represented in Arracan by the Dia¬ 
mond I. gathering only.] 

Present only in Diamond Island {Ellipanthus stercuUwfolius) 1 


Total 95 


The following remarks on this table may not be out of place. The 
absence at once from the Andamans and from Ceylon of certain species 
is at first sight good negative evidence of a statement made by Mr. 
Kurz (Z. c. p. 15) concerning the Andamans ;—“ A few Ceylon species 
“ indicate some relationship between the Andamans and that island.” 
But it is unwise to believe that a thing does not exist because it has 
not been seen, and it is, as regards the Andamans at least, no evidence 
because these species have not yet been met with yet that they do not 
occur there. The positive evidence from the species that occurs in 
Ceylon and is very frequent all along the Andamans group (Ipomcea 
denticulata) but that nevertheless is absent from the western or Indian 
shore of the Sea of Bengal is also without value. The curious but 
constant feature as regards its habitat already remarked on, may ex¬ 
plain its absence from the long line of sand-dunes that stretches from 
the Coromandel Coast up to Orissa. At the same time, it must not be 
supposed that Mr, Kurz’s remark has been based on facts that are as 
easily explained as these are.^ 

In order to provide a basis for the computation of the relative value 
of the Arracan, Pegu, and Andaman influences in the composition of 
the Diamond Island flora, it is necessary to tabulate further the facts of 
distribution so far as these three districts alone are concerned. 

* The writer has himself to add an instance quite as striking as any of those 
that were met with by Mr. Kurz. In Novembsr 1889 he collected on Mount 
Harriet in S. Andaman Strongylodon ruber- Yogel, a Polynesian species that has a 
somewhat peculiar distribution in that it also occurs in Ceylon j to the Ceylou 
locality has now to be added that of S. Andaman also. 

72 











291 


Table III. Jtelationship of Transgangetio Distribution to Habit 
and Habitat. 


Habit. 

Distributional Features. 

Habitat. 

O 

Trees. 

Shrubs. 

Herbs. 

Climbers. | 

Cultivated 

or planted. 

Weeds. 

Island sp. 

Marsh sp. 

1 Coast sp. 

Epiphyte. 

Saprophytes. 

Marine. 

1 Total. 

70 

16 

16 

25 

13 

In all 3 districts and widely distributed in 















the Arracan-Assam district 

8 

8 

22 

7 

17 

1 

4 

3 

70 

3 

1 

2 



In all 3 districts but represented in Arra- 















can by the Diamond I. gathering only ... 

1 








3 

15 

4 

2 

5 

4 

Absent from Andaman-Nicobars, but 















widely distributed in Arracan... 

1 

1 

9 

3 

1 




15 

2 

1 

1 



Absent from Andaman-Nicobars and only 















represented in Arracan by the Diamond 















I. gathering... 



2 






2 

3 


2 


1 

Absent from Pegu ; and at the same time 















only known from Arracan by the Dia- 















mond I. gathering 

... 


1 


2 




3 

1 




1 

Absent from Pegu and Andamans ; widely 


















1 






1 

1 

1 




Only known from Diamond Island 



1 






1 

95 

23 

23 

30 

19 

Totals 

10 

9 

38 

10 

20 

1 

4 

3 

95 


The first line of this table represents that element in the flora of 
the island wherein the inflaence of the three adjacent districts may be 
assumed to act indifferently ; the second line that wherein the influence 
of the Arracan district is to be eliminated and only Pegu-Malayan and 
Andaman-Nicobar influences (presumably equally) prevail; the third 
line that wherein Pegu-Malayan and Arracan-Assam influences prevail, 
while Andaman-lSTicobar influences do not act ; the fourth contains the 
element representative of Pegu-Malayan influences alone ; the fifth that 
representative of purely Andaman-Nicobars influences ; the sixth that 
indicating purely Assam-Arracan influences ; the last, like the first, in¬ 
dicates an element wherein the influences of the three areas act in¬ 
differently but in the opposite way. As however this element (the 
endemic) is here only represented by one species, it is not convenient 
or useful to employ it in computation, and since Diamond Island is 
geographically inseparable from Arracan this species is tieated as 
indicative of Arracan influence. 

Reasoning from particulars the Andaman influence is stronger 
than either the Pegu or the Arracan influence is, so far as positive evi¬ 
dence goes, for there are here three exclusively Andamanese species as 

73 


















































292 


compared with only tvoo exclusively Arracan and two exclusively Pegu 
species. The negative evidence, however, points quite the other way, 
for there are no fewer than eighteen species* indicating the absence of 
Andaman influence, as against only fivef indicating the absence of 
Arracan influence, and jiveX indicating the absence of Pegu influence. 
But it has to be kept in mind that the Andaman flora is by no means 
so well-known as the floras of the other two districts are and this nega¬ 
tive evidence may be expected to be decreased, while there is no reason 
why the positive evidence may not be increased. The figures are in 
every case too small for special inferences being drawn from them. 

The comparative values of the influences of these three adjacent 
areas are more accurately determinable from general evidence. In 
applying this it is necessary to use in succession as numerators the 
figures yielded by each possible distributional arrangement in which 
adjacent areas are concerned and as denominators in each case the num¬ 
ber of adjacent areas involved ; by adding together the fractions affect¬ 
ing particular adjacent districts we obtain a number that indicates the 
proportional influence of each of them in the composition of the flora of 
the island. The following ai’e the results :— 

I. Andaman-Hicobar influence -ff =27|-, or 29’29°/o- 

II. Pegu-Malayan influence -V' + l + V’ + f =34^, or 36*14°/^. 

III. Assam-Arracan influence -2^-1- =32|-, or 34-57%. 

95. 100. 


This method of computation may be extended to each of the sub¬ 
divisions under the general headings ‘ habit ’ and habitat.’ For some 
of these it is not, however, necessary; from others no particular informa¬ 
tion is to be derived. Under the heading of habitat, however, an 
analysis of the classes of inland and of coast plants is not without in- 
tei’est, especially when their results, expressed as per-centages, are com¬ 
pared with those afforded by the general total. They are as follows :— 
Inland species :— 

Andamans, = ^ + 1 + 1 = 9^ or, 24 56%. 

Pegu, = ^ + f+ f+ f = 14| or, 39 03%. 

Arracan, = + f + l + l = I3f or, 36-41%. 


38. 10000. 

* Obtained by adding together the totals of lines 3, 4 and 7. 
t Obtained by adding together the totals of lines 2 and 4. 
t Obtained by adding together the totals of lines 6, 6 and 7. 

74 








293 


Coast species :— 

Andamans, = V + x = = V = 7f or, 38-34%. 

Pegu, = V + i = = V= 6i or, 30-837o. 

344-3 

Arracan, = V + 1 ^ = V=6i or, 30-83%. 


20 . 100 - 00 . 


Comparing the results in these three series of figures we find the 
general influence differs from the special influence exhibited in the 
statistics of the inland and the coast element of the flora as follows :— 


Table IV. Comparison of Eesults. 



Species in flora 
generally. 

Inland 

species. 

Coast 

species. 

Andaman influence responsible for in- 
trodnction of 

29-29%. 

24-56°/,. 

38-34%. 

Pegu „ „ „ „ 

36-14°/,. 

39-03%. 

30-83%, 

Arracan „ „ ,. „ 

34-57%. 

36-41°/,. 

30-83°/,. 


It will at once occur to the reader that a fallacy underlies this cal¬ 
culation so far as the Andaman influence is concerned, when he notes 
the low figure at which that infiuence as regards inland species is given. 
This low figure, however, only affords corroboration of the justness of 
the system, since it is exactly the inland portion of the Andaman flora 
that is as yet inadequately known. The Andaman coast species 
are, however, nearly if not quite as well known as the Burmese or 
Malayan coast species, and it is interesting to find that for this element 
the equivalent numerical expression of the Andaman influence is dis¬ 
tinctly higher than are the figures for Pegu or Arracan. The only 
fallacy underlying the evidence from these figures is that which attends 
all calculations from numbers that are absolutely somewhat small. At 
all events they show how just was the passing observation made by 
Mr. Kurz on his visit to Diamond Island in 1866.* The only point on 

* Already given in the text (p. 276) and referred to in footnote +. 

75 























294 


which emphasis requires to be put in connection with the remark is 
that this striking “ similarity, nay rather identity, of the shore vegeta¬ 
tion ” is due less, as Mr. Kurz appears to imply, to the general connec¬ 
tion that subsists between the Andamans as a whole and Burma- 
Malaya as a whole than to a special connection that subsists between 
Diamond Island as the first segment, and the Andamans as the contin¬ 
uation of a special geographical district whereof both are membra 
disjecta —a connection quite as strikingly exhibited in these features 
wherein they together differ from Burma and Malaya as in the features 
wherein they alike agree with those two areas. 


70 


From the Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal, for August, 1887. 

The hot springs of the Na 7 nba Forest in the Sibsagar district. 
Upper Assam. Unpublished Memoranda by the late J. W. Masters, Esq.,* * * § 
with observations by Surgeon D. Prain, I. M. S., Curator of the Herba¬ 
rium, Royal Botanical Gardens, Calcutta. 

When stationed at Kohima in 1886 I often heard both from Euro¬ 
peans and natives of the springs in the Namba forest. On my way to 
Calcutta last January I visited one of these. As the only notice of 
them hitherto published! is meagre and barely correct, further observa¬ 
tion seemed called for. I was assured that in place of being of a scalding 
temperature those who resorted thither bathed in the springs. No 
European at Kohima knew the exact temperature. 

On my way down I received from an officerf passing up, a better 
account of the largest spring. The temperature I was told, is that of 
a comfortable bath, varying little throughout the year ; the water in the 
rains reaching above the knee, at this time, (January), would probably 
not reach further than half way up the calf. 

The spring was reached at noon on January i6th. It is eleven 
miles from Golaghat on the Golaghat-Dimapur road where this crosses 
the Namba river, from whose right bank it is six paces distant at a 
point twenty-five paces above the bridge. Thirty paces below the 
bridge the Dhunsiri river, a considerable stream, receives the Namba 
from the left. The Dhunsiri even in the cold weather is muddy, the 
Namba is a clear stream, with a bed of white sand, containing some 
rather angular quartz pebbles. The banks of both streams are about 
18 feet high, and are clay with alluvial mud above. 

The depression in which the spring lies, is circular, about 20 feet 
across and 3 feet deep ; the edges mud, the bottom white sand with 
pebbles, as in the bed of the adjacent stream 15 feet lower. This depres¬ 
sion is in Long. 93“ 55' E. and Lat. 26° 24' N., and is 350 feet above 
the sea.§ Gas bubbles up all over its area, a very strong escape in the 


* Sub-Assistant to the Commissioner of Assam at Golaghat. (Several botanical 
papers by Mr. Masters may be found in the Journal of the Agri. Hort. Soc. of India, 
Vols. Ill, V and VI, and a paper on the Meteorology of Assam in the Cal. Jour, of 
Nat. Hist. Vol. IV. The greater part of Mr. Masters’ papers have never been pub¬ 
lished, though they contain matter of much interest.) 

t Oldham : Thermal springs of India. Mem. Geol. Survey of India, vol. xix, pt, 
2, p. SI. 

J Mr. Lynch, Subordinate Telegraph Department. 

§ Assam, 1884. Map issued by office of Surveyor General of India. [Golaghat 
on the R. bank of the Dhunsiri is marked 349 feet, the country along the banks of 
the river is fairly level.] 


7 / 


2 


centre, two well marked minor vents, and small bubbles coming up 
everyvvhere, these last not confined to the part under water at the time 
of my visit. The gas was odourless and did not burn. The water was 
five inches deep in the centre ; my feet sank slowly in the sand, causing 
more violent ebullition of gas ; by the time the sand had reached my 
knees it was difficult to extract my feet. The water was beautifully 
clear with a sharp but not disagreeable taste. The temperature of the 
spring was iio“ Fh., that of the Namba being 63-6“ Fh. The effects on the 
skin appeared to be only those of hot water. Still, all classes of natives 
attribute to it curative properties in cases of skin disease, and take 
long journeys to bathe there, leaving offerings of money in the pool. 
These disappear ; removed they suppose by the spirit of the spring. I 
was fortunate enough to find a* bronze coin. Its upper surface is much 
corroded : that which rested on the sand is less affected. To an expert* 
the effects looked like those which Hg S would produce. From a rough 
calculation I estimated the discharge at over eight ^ gallons per minute.: 
I brought away some of the water for chemical examination. 

Before the result of this examination was received a number of 
manuscripts were discovered in a long unopened drawer in the Library 
of the Royal Botanical Gardens. Among these was a series of MS. 
memoranda relating to the hot springs of the Namba forest ; these 
appear so valuable as to deserve publication now. 

“Memorandat relative to the hot-springs situated in the bed of, 
and near to, the Nambur river, on the left bank and right bank of the, 
Dhunsiri river in Upper Assam ; obtained from personal observations 
registered on the spot at the hours and dates stated below. 

“No. I. SOROO Noon-poong, the principal spring, is eleven miles from 
Golaghat and situated close to the edge of the right bank of the Nambur, 
exactly where the road leading from Golaghat to Deemapoor crosses it, 
on the left bank of the Dhunsiri. 

Temperature 


1845. Feb. 17, I P. M. Air 72 

Water of Nambur 64“ 

Ditto spring 112“ 

1851. Jan. I, 12.30 p. M. Air 65^ 

Water of spring 110“ 


* Dr. Warden, the chemical adviser to the Government of Bengal, who also 
kindly undertook the examination of a sample of the water. 

t The quotation is a transcript of pp. 489-492 of the MSS. memoranda of the 
late Mr. Masters, consisting of his notes on the hot-springs in full. ^ 


78 


3 


Dak. 

Temperature. 

1851. Feb. 16, II A. M. 

Air, shade 

66“ 


Ditto, full sun 

98° 


Water of spring 

108° 

„ Nov. 25, 2.30 P. M. 

Air 

74“ 


Water of Nambur 

70° 


Ditto spring 

112° 

„ Nov. 26, sunrise 

Air 

61° 


Water of Nambur 

67“ 


Ditto spring 

112° 

J854. Oct. 27, II A. M. 

Air 

78“ 


Water of Nambur 

74 ° 


Ditto spring 

110° 

1, Oct. 28, I P. M. 

Air, shade 

81“ 


Ditto, full sun 

102° 


Water of Nambur 

76“ 


Ditto spring 

112° 

“No. 2. Burra Noon-poong, 

situated nearly two 

miles south- 

west of No. I in the bed of a jan (streamlet) near to the Nambur falls. 

Date. 

Temperature. 

1845. Feb. 17, 3.30 p. M. 

Air 

80^ 


Water of spring 

96“ 

„ Feb. 18, sunrise 

Air 

59 '' 


Water of Nambur 

62“ 


Ditto spring 

100“ 

„ Mar. 15, 1.30 p. M. 

Air, partial shade 

82“ 


Ditto, full sun 

90° 


Water of Nambur 

70° 


Ditto spring 

100“ 

1854. Oct. 28, II A. M. 

Air 

82° 


Water of jan (streamlet) 78° 


Ditto spring 

100° 

“No 3. Gilla-poong, situated on the right bank of 

the Dhunsiri 

river distant about a mile north-east, 

from No. i. A muddy swamp 

(bheel) spread over some 3,000 square feet of surface and discharging 

(now) about 10 gallons per minute 

; completely above 

the ordinary 

floods of the Dhunsiri. 



Date. 

Temperature. 

1854. Oct. 27, 3 P. M. 

Water of spring 

110“ 

„ Oct. 28, 2 P. M. 

Air, perfect shade 

84" 


Ditto, full sun 

104“ 


Water of Dhunsiri 

80“ 


Ditto spring 

112“ 


79 


4 


“ The springs are not regular in the quantity of water which they 
discharge. On the 27th of October last, I estimated that the Soroo 
Noon-poong was discharging about 30 gallons of water per minute. 
The waters of the Burra Noon-poong being mingled with those of the 
jan, renders it difficult to form any just estimate of the quantity of 
water discharged in a given time; this circumstance also accounts for 
the low temperature of the spring.” 

The memoranda are dated, Golaghat, November ist, 1854. c' 

The chemical examination by Dr. Warden yielded the following 
information :— 

parts per 100,000 

Total solids at 100” C..124 

Chlorine.66 !! 

The water was too old for estimation of organic matter. Nitrates 
and sulphates were present: nitrites absent. There was a distinct 
trace of Hg S, but whether this was originally present in the water or 
produced by the action of sulphates in the presence of organic matter 
the analyst was not in a position to offer an opinion. There was black¬ 
ening of the solid residue left after evaporation of the water—on 
ignition—indicating presence of much organic matter. 


Printed by Umbica Churn Shome at the New Britannia Press. 
78, Amherst Street, Calcutta 


80 




Fro7n the Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal for May, 1891 . 


84 


On the present condition of Barren Island,—By D. Prain. 

Barren Island has been so often described that there is little left to 
say concerning its physical condition. In his exhaustive account of the 
island (Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, xxi, part 4) Mr. 
Mallet has, however, suggested (1. c., p. 30) that future visitors should 
note “ the temperature of the hot spring ” at the landing place and “ the 
“ thickness of the fresh and undisturbed sulphur-crusts.” This the 
writer, owing to the kindness of Col. T. Cadell, v. c.. Chief Commis¬ 
sioner of the Andamans, had an opportunity of doing in April 1891. 

81 


85 


The cohimn of steam from the crater which was “ visible from the 
“ landing-place or even some distance out at sea ” to Mr. Mallet (1. c., 
p. 23) in February 1884 and was “ barely visible at 3 miles distance” 
to Capt. A. Carpenter in 1886 {Records, Oeol, Surv., India, xx, 
48) was no longer visible from these points in April 1891 ; on 
ascending the cone, however, steam was found to issue still at the 
places indicated in Mr. Mallet’s memoir. The most copious discharge 
was still from the solfatara on the inner aspect of the north side of the 
crater. 

A deposit of sulphur of an average thickness of 2|- inches had been 
laid down on this solfatara since 1884. On the other solfataras far less 
had been deposited; the crusts on the two next largest—that on the 
inner aspect of the south side of the crater and that outside the crater 
on the north-east face of the cone—were but | in. to 1 inch thick. 
The new crusts were very similar to the old ones described by Mr. 
Mallet {1. c., p. 18) except as regards thickness; when pieces were 
removed, however, they were found to be looser in texture and more 
friable than the fragments of the old deposit that lay scattered about 
the crater and in estimating the present value of the solfataras as a 
sulphur-supply this should perhaps be taken into account. The tem¬ 
perature of the steam at the point of issue was not determined in 1891, 
but it can hardly be as hot now as in 1884—it was then 219° F.—since 
there was no crevice in which it was impossible to place one’s hand for 
at least a few seconds. 

In taking the temperature of the hot spring Mr. McCausland, Com¬ 
mander of H. M. I. M. Nancowry very kindly assisted me. At high 
tide there was no trace of percolation of water through the shingle of 
the small landing-place beach, but when the tide had ebbed water was 
found to ooze through this shingle at five different points round the 
head of the bay. Having scooped out pools sufficiently deep for com¬ 
plete immersion of a thermometer at these spots we took temperatures 
in as nearly as possible the fashion described by Mr. Mallet (Z. c., p. 
26). In the most northerly small pool (furthest from the recent lava), 
the thermometer registered 102° F.; in the next pool towards the lava, 
103° F.; then 104° F.; then 106° F.; finally in the pool nearest of all 
to the recent lava 104° F.; Mr. Mallet found that in 1884 the tem¬ 
perature of the different springs increased with their proximity to the 
recent lava ; the discrepancy of our results as regards the last pool and 
that next adjacent to it (which, though five yards further from the 
lava was nevertheless 2° F. warmer) from the experience of Mr. Mallet 
led us to repeat the whole observation and to take the temperatures in 
these two last pools several times ; our results were, howevei’, the sama 

82 


8G 


On each occasion. There appears to have been more water in the 
spring at the time of Mr. Mallet’s visit (Feb,) than when our observa- 
tions were made (April) for he found it possible to take temperatures 
in seven places while we could only do so in five. 

This spring was formerly much hotter than it is now, but unfor¬ 
tunately the early observations are not at all definite : ‘ as hot almost 
‘as if it had been boiling ’ (commander of a vessel, 1832); ‘tempera¬ 
ture too high to be borne with the hand ’ (Playfair, 1837) ; ‘ natural 
boiling spring’ (Mouat, 3857) ; ‘ nearly at the boiling point’ (Liebig 
1858); ‘scalding hot’ (Parish, 1862). The observations made since 
1862 being more precise are here appended :— 


Date. 

Temperature of Spring. 

Authority. 

April, 1866 

158° F. and 163° F. 

Andaman Committee, 

Report in Proo. As. Soc. 
Beng. 1866, p. 213. 

March, 1873 

130° F. (highest observed) 

Ball, JRec. Oeol. Surv. 
India, vi, p. 87. 

February, 1884 

106°—116° F. 

Mallet, Mem. Geol. Surv. 
India, xxi, pt. 4, p. 26. 

April, 1886 

110° F. (solitary observation) 

Daley, Bee. Geol. Surv. 
India, xx, 48. 

April, 1891 

102°-106° F. 

Prain. 


The observations given in this table are not of quite equal value 
because they have not been taken on a uniform principle. The Anda¬ 
man Committee above referred to (Dr. Gamseks, Lt. Laughton and Mr. 
Homfray) describe the spring accurately as issuing from underneath 
the lava across the small bay, but though Mr. Ball (1. c.) speaks of 
them as recording the temperature “ at from 158° to 163° ” the state¬ 
ment in their report is that at low tide in one place the temperature 
was found to be 163° F., and at another 158° F. We cannot there¬ 
fore be certain that these figures give either the maximum or the 
minimum temperature in 1866, though it is highly pi’obable even if one 
of them represents a limit that they do not exhibit the full range of tem¬ 
perature at that time. Mr. Ball’s observation is rather more iDrecise ; 
the highest temperature is given as 130° F. taken close to high-water 
mark where the sjnung bubbles up; unfortunately he does not give the 
range of temperature in 1873. In connection with this it should be 
noted that Mr. A. 0. Hume, speaking of this very obseiwation, says 

83 ■ 










87 


(Stray Feathers ii, 104) “ the thermometer showed a temperature of 
“ nearly 140° P.” This remark occurs in the narrative portion of a 
paper on the ornithology of the islands of the Bay of Bengal and is 
clearly written from memory only ; attention is drawn to it now merely 
in order to prevent any one who may subsequently read the statement 
from relying upon it as exact. Mr, Mallet’s observations are very com¬ 
prehensive and precise. Only the bare result of Mr. Daley’s observa¬ 
tion is given and only one temperature is mentioned : it is not stated 
that it was the highest, and it is possible that the temperature was taken 
at one spot only. 

The rate of cooling of the spring as indicated by the various highest 
readings of the preceding table is shown in the table subjoined : 


Period. 

No. of years. 

Amt, of cooling. 

Rate per annum. 

1866-73 

7 

33° F. or 18-30°0. 

4-7° F. or 2-6°0. 

1873-84 

11 

14° F. or 7-700, 

1-2° F. or 0-6°O. 

1884-86 

2 

6 ° F. or 3-3°C. 

3-0° F. or l-7°0. 

1886-91 

6 

4° F. or 2 2°C. 

0-8° F. or 0-4‘’0. 


The rates per annum shew that the existence of an error in the 
1886 observation is not only possible but highly probable ; the spot 
selected for examination can hardly have been that in which the tem¬ 
perature was highest at the time. If it be neglected the rate per annum 
for the whole 1884-91 period is ^ or 1‘4° P. ( = 0'7°C.) a rate that, 
allowing for errors unavoidable in such observations, is practically 
uniform with that during the 1873-84 period. Between 1866 and 1873 
it cooled nearly four times as fast as it has cooled since ; if the 1886 
observation is correct, six times as fast as it is cooling now. If the 
rate continues uniform henceforth the spring will, if the 1886 observa¬ 
tion be correct, probably cease to deserve the appellation “ hot ” by 
1925, if the 1886 observation was not taken where the’water was hottest 
at the time, the spring will probably be cool by 1910. 


84 













From the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LX, Fart II, No. 2, 

1891. 


204 


On an undescribed Oriental species of Nepeta.— By D. Prain. 

[Received 2nd March 1891Read 6th May 1891.] 

(With Plate III). 

In the Calcutta herbarium there is an example of a very distinct 
species of Nepeta which appears to be as yet undescribed. As it has 
been collected beyond the frontiers of India, it could not with propriety 
be dealt with in the paper on Indian Labiatce recently read before the 
Society. But as it possesses rather more interest than isolated new 
species usually do, its position in the ai-rangement of Oriental species 
elaborated by the late M. Boissier in his work (Flora Orientalis, iv, 637- 
670) dealing with the area in which it occurs, as well as a description 
and figure of the specimen, are now presented. 

NEPETA Ltnn. 

Sect. I. Eunepeta. Series I. Perennes. Suh-ser. 2. Nuculi© 
tuberculatse. 

§ Macrostegi^ Boiss., Flor. Orient, iv, 638 (1879) ampZ.— Verticil- 
lastra densiflora vel laxiuscula remota. Bracteee ovatse vel oblongte. 
Calyx fauce pilosus vel glaber. 

1. Calyx ore obliquus. 

a. Calyx fauce pilosus. 

N. Bellevii. 

b. Calyx fauce glaber. 

N. glomerulosa, N. juncea. 

2. Calyx ore rectus, fauce glaber. 

N. Scordotis, N. Sibthorpii, N. leucostegia. 

34 b. Nepeta Bellevii Prain; I’obusta, laxe lanata nivea, caulibus 
elongatis ramosis puberulis obtuse 4-gonis superne subnudis, foliis 
majusculis sursum decrescentibus oblongo-lanceolatis crenato-dentatis 

85 


205 


subrugosis apice acutis basi truncatis, utrinque parce lanatis, inferioribus 
breve petiolatis casteris subsessilibus raiaealibus ovato-lanceolatis ; verti- 
cillastris multifloris laxiuseulis reraotis, hracteis membranaceis ovato- 
lanceolatis acnminatis cucullatis calyces ^quantibus, calycis longe 
hirsuti membranacei striati ore intus piloso oblique, dentibus e basi 
angustiore subulatis summo tubum subsequante casteris eo brevioribus, 
corolla extus puberula tube calycis fere 2-plo longiore, staminibus 
exsertis, nuculis oblongis apice obtusis ruguloso-tuberculatis areola ferri 
equini calcaribus sursum directis ad instar afiixis. 

Afghania ATJSTRALt ; inter Kandahar et Kelat-i-Ghilzai, Bellew ! 

Rhizoma de-est, caulis p. q. s. plus quam 40 cm. basi fere 1 cm. crassa, 
foliis inferioribus 7—9 cm. longis his 3—4 cm. latis petiolis 1 cm. longis, 
ramealibus 2—2'5 cm. longis his 1—1-5 cm. latis sessilibus, spied 12 cm. 
longa hac 2-5 cm. lata verticillastris (10—12) 12—16-floris imis 2 cm. 
summis vix 1 cm. remotis, bracteis 12 mm. longis 4—7 mm. latis 3—5- 
nervis coloratis supra glabris subtus nervis sub lente puberulis margine 
prope basin parce pilis albis divergentibus ornato prope apicem acumina¬ 
tum et tandem subulatum sub lente puberulo, calyce tandem subinflato 
pedicello 1—2 mm. longo tubo 6 mm. longo dentibus summo 6 mm., 
lateralibus 5 mm., imis 4-5 mm. longis extus ssquabiliter pilis albis 
divergentibus parce hirsute intus tubi ore et dentium basibus pilis 
simillimis densissime piloso, corolla tubo 11 mm. longo extus puberulo 
colore forsan rosea, nuculis 3 mm, longis his 1-5 mm. latis brunneis 
areola alba calcaribus 1 mm. longis excepta manifesto rugulosis. 

This very distinct species bears a considerable resemblance to the 
European N. tuberosa but the whorls are much more lax, the calyx mouth 
is oblique and no secondary reticulation of the membranous bracts is 
visible. The nutlets of this species also closely resemble those of 
N. tuberosa and N. Sibthorpii, but in these European species there is 
a much smaller areola of the us ual type. Among Oriental species it 
most resembles N. glomerulosa, next to which it is now placed, but it 
differs greatly in having much larger bracts, much longer spikes and 
many-flowered lax w horls with longer corollas. The nutlets too are 
different—the horse-shoe shaped areola of the nutlets being perhaps 
the most remarkable character of this species; its pilose calyx-mouth 
also is a character which connects it with § Psiloneffm Benth. to 
which group this feature has hitherto been supposed to be conflned. 
Except for this character, however, it is much more obviously related 
to the other Maceostegij; than to any Psilonepe'ia. Perhaps a prefer¬ 
able view would be to look on this species as the type of a new subsec¬ 
tion intermediate between Psilonepetse and Macrostegise though to be 

86 


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PBAINjJo'jrxr- Asiat Soo.'Bengul .VolLX.PLniSSi, 


KT. Dass deit 


NEPBTA BELL3VII Pram. 



















Effects //^cidium esculentum o?i Acacia eburnea. 206 

placed in the same subseries as the latter. This subsection would be 
characterised as follows :— 


§ PsiLOSTEGi^ ( Sub-sect, nov. ).—Verticillastra laxiuscula remota. 
Bracteae ovatse. Calyx fauce pilosus. (Nuculae tuberculatae).—Inter 
PsiLONEPETAS Betith. et Macrostegias Boiss, quasi mediantes et proximae 
Macrostegiis {Boiss., Flor. Orient, iv, 638 et 651) anteponendae. 

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. 

Nepeta Bellevii, Prain. 

F'ig. I. Bract. Fig. 4. Corolla tube. 

’2. Calyx. 5. Upper lip of Corolla. 

3. The same, laid open. 6. Nutlet, external aspect. 

7. The same, showing inner face with cha¬ 
racteristic horse-shoe shaped areola. 


{From the Journal, Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1890.] 

165. 

Teratological effects produced on Acacia eburnea Willd. by 
iEcidium esculentum Bard.—By D. Prain. 


-The fungoid growth produces considerable general hypertrophy 
and some distortion of the parts involved ; it causes at the same time 
the occurrence of certain abnormalities of structure. 

The species affected, Acacia eburnea of Willdenow, is characterised 
by having its florets arranged in globose heads. These heads are 
borne on slender stalks that arise from the axils of developed leaves ; 
the stalks are near their middle surrounded by a ring of small bracts. 
The free ends of the stalks are slightly thickened and it is to this 

87 


! 


i66 Effects ^^cidium esculentum on Acacia eburnea. 

slightly thickened sub-globose facetted part of the stalk that the 
florets are attached. The individual florets do not possess special 
stalklets. So much of the structure of the normal inflorescence it is 
necessary to detail in order to make the conditions in the diseased 
flowers intelligible. 

In the diseased flowers a ring of florets makes its appearance in 
the axils of the bracts near the middle of the stalk, that are normally 
sterile. The thickened end-parts of the stalk that are normally short 
and globose become elongated in such a manner as to transform the 
globular flower-head into a cylindric spike on which the florets in¬ 
stead of being crowded together are arranged at short intervals from 
each other. At the same time each of the florets developes a short 
special stalklet, and in place of all the florets opening simultaneously 
as they do in the normal flower-heads, those florets in the diseased 
spikes that are nearest to their apices are smaller in size and later 
of growth than those below them. It ought to be noticed that even 
in fruit there is no tendency in undiseased plants to elongation of 
the part of the stalk to which the pods are attached, and no disposi¬ 
tion on the part of the pods to ripen more quickly at the outside of 
the branch than in the centre. At the same time it has to be repeat¬ 
ed that it is entirely owing to special elongation of this part of the 
stalk in diseased flowers that the flower-head becomes changed from 
a ball into a spike, because the interval that in normal flower-stalks 
exists between the barren bracts and the flower-heads themselves 
still continues to exist, destitute of florets, between the circle of florets 
that appears abnormally in the axils of the bracts and the basal 
florets of the cylindric spike. This interval, which in undiseased 
flowers is 5—6 mm. long, measures 10 - 12 mm. in diseased ones. But 
the increase in length of this part is merely due to the general 
hypertrophy produced by the disease, and it is not its size but its 
existence at all in the diseased flower that is of interest. 

Expressed in technical teratological language the conditions in^ 
duced by the disease are .- — Increase in the size of the parts affected 
by general hypertrophy, with some alteration of shape by distortion 
combined with conversion of florets from sessile to pedicellate by 
elongation, conversion of a capitate inflorescence into a spike by 
apostasis, change of a simultaneous and therefore at least sub-definite 
88 



i 

















Note on Lo-Kao. 


167 

inflorescence into a palpably indefinite one by heterotaxy, and the 
appearance of a new circle of florets by prolification of flower-buds 
in the axils of the median peduncular involucre. 

Explanation of figures in Plate B :— 

1. Flower head with opened florets and head with florets 
unopened in axil of the same leaf of Acacia eburnea, Willd. 

2. Young infruitescence shewing that even in fruit there is 
no tendency to elongation in that part of the peduncle to which 
florets and subsequently pods are attached ; from the same plant 
as preceding. 

3. Diseased flower (covered with the granular papillae 
indicative of the disease) shewing distortion of leaf; general 
hypertrophy of portion of branchlet, stipular spines and in¬ 
florescence ; prolification of florets in the axils of the peduncular 
bracts ; apostasis, and at the same time heterotaxy^ in the normally 
floret-bearing portion of peduncle ; with pedicellation of indivi¬ 
dual florets that are normally sessile. 


\Repnnted from the fournal of the Agricultural and Horticultia'al Society 
of India, Vol. VIII,, Part II, Neiv Series, pp. 278-281.] 

Note on Lo-Kao, the Chinese Green-Dye; yielded by various 
species of Rhamnus. — By D. Prain. 

The species of Rhamnus of Eastern Asia are closely allied 
and therefore not easy to define so that those which-yield a green 
dye have been variously named by different authors. Two well 
known plants afford this dye, and to these a third would seem to 
have to be added. 

The first of these is i?. davuricus, Pall, to which Forbes and 
Hemsley in four. Linn. Soc. xxiii, 128, reduce R. utilis, Dene, 

89 



Note on Lo-Kao. 


under which name one plant that yields the dye is generally 
known. Maximowicz in Mem. Acad. Sc. Petersb. ser. x, {re¬ 
print p. 8), makes R. davnrictis itself a variety of R. catharticus, 
Linn., a reduction which Forbes and Hemsley, loc. ctt., do not con¬ 
sider advisable. 

The second is R. tinctorius, Waldst. & Kit., -to which Forbes 
and Hemsley,/oc. cit., 129, reduce 7 ?. chlorophorus. Dene, under 
which name the other source of the dye is generally known. To 
this also these authors reduce R. globosus, Bunge, a plant which 
Lawson in Flor. Brit. Ind., i, 639 unites with R. virgatus, Roxb., 
reducing both to R. davuricus. Probably, however, Roxburgh s 
plant is a good species, in which case neither of these dye plants is 
indigenous in India. There appears to be no record of any attempt 
to ascertain whether indigenous species of Rhamnus will yield a 
green dye. Specimens collected by Fortune and, if not the speci¬ 
mens themselves, very likely identical with those which Thomson 
says, in the passage quoted in Jout. Agri. & Hort. Soc. of 
India, 1° ser., ix, 274 {foot note), that he sent to England to be 
determined are stated by Forbes and Hemsley, {loc. cit, 130) to be 
typical R. chlorophoinis. 

A third plant is alluded to as “ Rhamnus sp.” in Jour. Lmn. 
Soc., xxiii, 130 as gathered by Mesny in Szechuen, about 10 
miles N. of Kweiyong, at 6,500 feet elev. which is “used with other 
“ingredients to make a green dye for calicoes : its liquor being 
“blue like indigo. Neither flowers nor fruit seen.” It is further 
stated that this is very different from either of the other dye-yield¬ 
ing species, and that it is apparently an evergreen shrub. 

There are only leaf specimens of green-dye plants in the Calcutta 
herbarium. The ticket on the oldest bears “China green-dye. 
“A. H. Soc. Gardens, 19-3-56.” This should be the plant sent by 
Fortune, and be thus {teste Forbes and Hemsley) typical R. chloro- 
phofus. Dene, and therefore true R. tinctorius, Waldst. & Kit. The 
ticket on another is, “Japanese green-dye. Cultivated at Lembong, 
“Tanka-ban-Prahoe, Java, 5,200 feet, collected by Dr. King, 14-10- 
79.” This was known in Java at that time as R. chlorophorus. It 
is however different from Fortune’s plant. As it has no flowers or 
fruit, it cannot-be positively determined, but the probability is that 
90 


Note on Lo-Kao. 


it is R. utilis^ Dene, and therefore true R. davuricus, Pall. It is 
exceedingly like specimens of veritable R. davuricus here. Dr. 
King tells me the plant is grown in Java only as a curiosity. 

The history of the plant sent from China by Fortune is short. 
The account of it in Vol. ix. i° ser. of the Society’s Journal shews 
that under the special treatment it received in their garden it did 
fairly well. When the old site was abandoned, the ground re¬ 
verted to the Botanical Garden, and as the plant appears to have 
attracted no attention on the part of the public, the special treat¬ 
ment does not seem to have been continued. Left to itself it 
shewed its exotic nature and within a few seasons all the speci¬ 
mens died. It would be interesting to ascertain if any of the 
older members of the Society have continued the cultivation of 
the plant and still preserve it. But its not being generally grown 
seems to point to practical difficulties, and this is borne out by 
its speedy extinction when left to itself. 

The geographical limits of the species are as follows : — 

R. davuricus ; N. China, Mandshuria, E. Siberia. 

R. tinctorius ; Mid and N. China, Asia Minor, S. E. Europe. 

R, sp.; Central S. China, but at 6,500 elevation there. 

It is therefore doubtful whether perfect naturalization of these 
in the plains of India can be hop d for. Moreover, all the in¬ 
digenous species are high level plants, the lowest elevation quoted 
(for one species only, R. persicus, Boiss), being 2,000, the usual 
range being 5,000 to 9,000. But it is likely that the Chinese 
species would thrive well at similar levels. It would be interest¬ 
ing to ascertain whether any of the indigenous species, one at 
least of which has been referred to a dye-yielding species, would 
not, if suitably treated, yield a similar dye. The property, as has 
been shewn, is shared by at least three Chinese species. 

Mr. Blechynden suggests the recapitulation of the Chinese 
method of preparing the dye. This is to be found in the Society’s 
Journal^ loc. cit., 276, and it is to be noted that in Fortune’s 
account of the process, and also in McMurray’s account of the 
cultivation of the plant which accompanies it, two varieties^ a wild 
and a cultivated, are spoken of, the presence of both being 
necessary for the production of the dye. These varieties are 


91 


Note on Lo-Kao. 


apparently not distinguishable in the herbarium. At all events 
no mention is made of them by Forbes and Hemsley, loc. cit. 
Unfortunately there is no note on the Calcutta specimen to in¬ 
dicate which of the two is here preserved. 

The process is as follows 

“ \si .—To take the two kinds, strip the leaves off them, chop 
“ them up into convenient lengths and boil thoroughly. 

2nd .—To leave the residuum undisturbed for three days 
“ and then put it into large earthenware vessels. 

“ —The colouring matter is then taken up by immersion 

“ of cotton cloth prepared with lime. 

“ 4^'//. After five or six immersions the colour is washed from 
“ the cotton and again boiled. 

“ 5^/^. —Lastly, it is again taken up on cotton yarn and then 
“ sprinkled on thin paper and thoroughly dried.” 




Printed by Umhica Churn Shome, at the New Britannia Press, 7S, Amherst Street, Calcutta. 


92 



From the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LX, Part II, 

No. 4 , 1891 . 


Natural History Notes from H. M.^s 1 . M. Stirvey Steamer 
“ Investigator,” Commander R. F. Hosktn, R. IST., Commanding — 
No. 25 . The Vegetation of the Coco Group.—By D. Prain. 

[Received—Oct. 23rd ; read—4tli Nov. 1891.] 

§ Introdtictort. 

The Cocos are a small group of three islands, Table Island, Great 
Coco, and Little Coco, lying about 30—45 miles north of Landfall Is¬ 
land, the most northerly of the Andaman group proper, in Lon. 93 ° 21 ' 
E., Lat. 13 ° 56 ' to 14 ° 10 ' N., and form one of the links in the island- 
chain that stretches southwards from Cape Hegrais in Arracan to the 
Nias Islands off the western coast of Sumatra. 

The first link in this chain is Diamond Island, Lon. 94 ° 18 ' E., Lat. 
15 ° 51 ' N., 8 miles south of Cape Negrais and 130 miles north-north-east 
of the Cocos; the next is the island of Preparis, (not yet botanically 
investigated), larger than Diamond Island but smaller than the Great 
Coco, 80 miles south-south-west from Diamond Island and 50 miles to 
the north of the Cocos. The strait between Diamond island and Pre¬ 
paris is somewhat under 100 fathoms, that between Preparis and the Cocos 
somewhat over that depth. The channel between the Great and the Little 
Coco is under 50 fathoms, a depth not greatly if at all exceeded in the 
passage between the Cocos and Landfall. The next link in the chain 
is the Andaman Group proper, extending from about Lat. 10 ° 40 ' to 

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13° 45* N., consisting of several large islands that are separated by sti’aits 
and channels which, with the exception of a passage 30 miles wide 
and about 100 fathoms deep between Rutland Island and Little Andaman, 
are all very narrow and usually quite shallow. Further south we find 
in the same chain the Nicobar Islands; these, separated by wider inter¬ 
vals than the members of the Andaman Group are, extend from 6° 45' 
to 7° 15' N. Besides being wider, the passages between the individual 
islands here are much deeper and the main channels between the 
Andamans and Nicobars on the one hand, and between the Nicobars 
and Sumatra or the Nias Islands on the other, in place of being under 
150 fathoms deep, give soundings of 500, 750, and even 900 fathoms. 
There is, however, along the line from Little Andaman to the island of 
Simalu or to Acheen Head an undoubted ridge, for the floor of the Sea 
of Bengal to the westward is 2,000 fathoms deep, and that of the Andaman 
Sea to the eastward is in some places at as great a depth. Whether 
any portion of the now submarine sections of the southern, or Nicobars half 
of this ridge has ever been subaerial it is difiicult to say but it seems 
likely from its present physiographical configuration that the most recent 
land connection must have been between the northern or Andaman half 
of the ridge and the adjacent Indo-Chinese district of Arracan. 

Table Island, the most northerly member of the Coco group, and 
lying 45 miles north of Landfall, is about a mile across and is rather 
longer than broad, with a considerable outlying islet. Slipper Island, 
at its north-west coimer; southward, across a strait about two miles 
wide, lies the Great Coco some 9 miles long from north to south and 
about 2j across at the widest part with several small islets off both its 
east and west coasts and with a very considerable outlying islet, Jerry 
Island, at its southern extremity ; finally, some 6 miles south-west of 
Great Coco, and 30 miles north of Landfall, is the Little Coco about 2 j 
miles long from north to south and j to ^ a mile wide. 

Through the kindness of Capt. Hoskyn, R.N., the writer, in com¬ 
pany with Dr. Alcock of H. M. I. M. “ Investigator,” has been able 
to visit the group on two occasions. On Nov. 30th and Dec. 1st, 1889, 
Table Island was examined. On Dec. 2nd, 1889, a naturalist’s party, 
which the writer was privileged to join, landed on Great Coco and re¬ 
mained encamped on a small cleared hill in its north-eastern peninsula 
until Dec. 8th. From Nov. 14th till Nov. 23rd, 1890, a similar parity, of 
which the writer again was a member, was encamped on a sandy spit 
covered with coco-nut trees at the south end of the island; while be¬ 
tween Nov. 25th and Nov. 30th, 1890, the Little Coco was examined. 

On Table Island is situated the v/ell known lighthouse of this 
name and the western slopes of the main island as well as most of Slip- 

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per Island, wliicli at low-tide is not separated from the main island, are 
cleared on account of some cattle of which, the lighthouse-keeper has 
charge. Throughout the rest of the island, however, except for a few 
pathways that have been cut on account of the cattle, the jungle is very 
dense and uniform. Around a bay at the south side of this island as well 
as on the north coast is a fringe of coco-nut trees. The height of Slipper 
Island is 110 feet; the highest point of Table Island proper is 150 feet. 
On the occasion of the visit referred to, the eastern half of the island, 
where the jungle is as yet intact, was traversed from south to north; the 
northern and westeim coasts were examined ; the island was traversed from 
west to east along one of the cattle paths ; the clearing was also examined 
for introduced weeds and escapes from cultivation. 

On Great Coco Island there is a small clearing on a peninsula that 
forms the north-eastern extremity of the island, the site of an abandoned 
settlement which, some years ago, it was attempted to effect and where 
the writer was encamped during his first visit. Except at this point and 
on two or thi’ee of the more exposed cliffs and slopes on the western sea- 
face of the island, which are only grass-clad, there is a uniform jungle 
from end to end of the island and from base to summit of the numerous 
more or less parallel steep ridges that compose it. The shore is fringed 
with coco-nut trees in quite a thin belt where the ridges that compose the 
island come close to the shore, and this fringe is broken here and there 
where these ridges end in abrupt headlands ; the belt widens however at 
the heads of the various bays and in two places in particular,—on the 
eastern side of the island along the bay that extends southward from the 
north-eastern peninsula already mentioned, as well as across the isthmus 
joining this peninsula to the main island and thence along the northern 
end of the island to the mouth of the principal creek—again, on the 
western side of the island for half a mile or more northwards from the 
southern end—this belt of coco-nut trees is 100 yards or moi’e in width. 
Where the beach meets the coco-nut belt there is an invariable sea-fence 
of Pandanus with other ordinary Indian Ocean littoral plants; this fence 
is generally less dense where the beach is composed of sand than when it 
consists of coral shingle. Except on the very crests of the ridges, and 
sometimes even there, and on the more exposed western headlands, the 
forest is composed of very tall trees with below these a dense under¬ 
growth ; this undergrowth is particularly dense, owing to the number 
of creepers, on the crest of ridges destitute of tall trees, and on the 
slopes of the western sea-face that are not grassy. It is also very dense 
immediately behind the coco-nut belt especially if, as frequently hap¬ 
pens, this belt passes insensibly into the mudflats that characterise the 
outskirts of a mangrove swamp. On the sides of ridges however, as 

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opposed to tlieir crests, the under-jungle is not so dense, largely owing to 
the mass of creepers being carried up to the tall trees above, while on 
the neck of land that connects the main island with the peninsula at the 
north-east corner, and on the narrow, more level tongue that forms the 
south end of the main island and stretches towards Jerry Island, the 
jungle is rather opener and more penetrable than elsewhere. The 
height of the outlying north-eastern peninsula which probably at one 
time has been a separate islet, at least at high-tide, is 80 feet; the 
highest ridge of the main island has an elevation of 300 feet; the other 
ridges mostly reach from 150—200 feet. Jerry Island, the chief outlying 
islet off Great Coco, consists at the southern end of a low ridge 60 feet 
high with a vegetation quite like that of the ridges on the main island ; 
the northern half, however, consists of a level spit stretching towards 
the main island; this spit is composed of coral-shingle, and though 
covered with coco-nut and other trees there is only a sparse undergrowth 
within its Pandanus belt. Between Jerry and the main island extend 
wide sandstone reefs on which the waves and currents have thrown up 
a small eyot of sand, coral-shingle, dead shells, and drift timber on which 
stranded fruits and seeds are germinating. The other outlying islets call 
for no remark; all of them look like detached continuations of particular 
ridges and most of them have the vegetation characteristic of these. 
During the first visit daily excursions were made into the island to¬ 
wards the northern and eastern jjarts; the jungle was found to be so 
dense on the ridges and the level ground so difficult owing to the 
ramifications of a considerable creek, which, with its concomitant man¬ 
grove swamps, finds an outlet into the northern bay, that it was only 
on one occasion that the western coast was reached. It was impossible 
to do anything like justice to the interior ; still, the northern and north- 
eastei’n peninsulas, the northern half of the east coast, the north coast 
and about two miles of the west coast at the north end were fairly 
thoroughly examined. During the second visit, profiting by the experi¬ 
ence of the former season, fewer attempts Avere made to force a passage 
in a straight line through all obstacles, and the edges of ridges —juga 
ipsissima —were in particular carefully avoided. The compass was 
discarded, no particular objective in the shape of a bill visible from 
the sea-shore was permitted to occupy the attention exclusively; the 
easiest rather than the shortest road was chosen as the route to be 
followed. In this way the island was crossed in four or five different 
places, all, however, towards the southern end; the west coast was 
explored for about four miles and the east coast examined northwai’ds 
as far as the point reached when working in the opposite direction in 
the previous year. The outlying islet, Jerry, was also examined fairly 
thoroughly and its coasts skirted. 

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Little Coco consists of several ridges the highest having an elevation 
of 200 feet. The ridge jungle is much as in the other islands, but the 
level land is more largely composed of a basis of coral-shingle than is 
the case in the other two islands and the undergrowth is not quite so 
dense as in the level land on Great Coco. The coco-nut fringe is quite 
as uniform as in the Great Coco, but there is only one point,—at the head 
of a shallow bay in the middle of the west coast,—where the belt is as 
much as thirty yards wide. During his visit to this island the writer 
was able to cut his way from west to east across the highest ridge; to 
cross in another part along more level and frequently swampy ground ; 
to work through a lagoon that occupies the south-western part of the 
island, and to skirt the whole coast on two different occasions. 

The islands have all the physical features of the Andaman islands 
of the main chain as opposed to those of the Archipelago lying to the 
north-east of Port Blair ; the rocks indeed recall at once those of Ross 
Island and of the shores of Port Blair in South Andaman. They are 
also equally like those foi’ming Diamond Island, off the Arracan coast 
at the mouth of the Bassein river and, as in these localities, are best 
seen at points where the inland ridges end in abrupt headlands or are con¬ 
tinued as long reefs exposed wholly, or in part, at low-tide.* Such reefs 
not infrequently rise into outlying islets. These islets are some distance 
from the main island, and are bare and rocky, or jungle-clad, according 
to size and exposure, those off the west coast being all very bare. The 
bays between the headlands are mo.stly wide and shallow, and are filled 
up, except opposite the mouths of creeks, with an accumulation of coral 
debris that becomes at times banked up, causeway-like, between the shore 
and an outlying island; these causeways are in some instances becoming 
stocked with the mangrove-vegetation of the neighbomfing creeks. 

The floor of these shallow bays is remarkably flat and uniform and 
is, at the sea-edge of the bay where the reef ends, generally rather 
shallower than it is within, so that at low-tide each bay consists of a 
long shallow pool, one to two feet deep, separated from the sea itself by a 
long low bank of exposed coral. The bottom of such a pool is usually 
covered by a close meadow of Gymodocea ciliata, but though this species 
is so common there seems to be no other marine phanerogam present. 
Algce, too, are remarkably inconspicuous, being of small size and very 

* For further notices of the physiography of the islands the reader is referred 
to AlcocJc; Nat. Hist. Reports in Noskyn, Administration Reports of the Marine Survey 
of India 1889-90, pp. 14, 15 ; 1890-91, pp. 11, 12 ; where also notices of the fauna, 
particularly marine, will be found. In Hume; The Islands of the Bay of Bengal iu 
Stray Feathers, vol. ii, pp. HI —119, an account of these islands will also be found ; 
there the ornithology of the group is exhaustively discussed. 


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scarce ; the only exceptions are Turhinaria ornata, which is fairly frequent 
both on the coral reefs atid on the sandstone ledges ; Padina pavonia, 
more common on the exposed sandstone reefs but less frequent on the 
coral than Turhinaria ; and Sargassum ilicifolium, which is the only really 
common seaweed and which occurs in great meadows at the outer margins 
of the fringing reefs and sandstone ledges that are exposed at low-tide, as 
well as in the deeper water beyond. 

Reefs such as those desci-ibed are extremely common in all the 
islands of the Andaman and Ricobars groups that the writer has visited, 
and the marine vegetation is remarkably uniform in appearance as well 
as in specific constituents. On Car Kicobar, for example, as well as on 
Rutland Island, at the extreme south end of the Andaman main group, 
localities which the writer has visited on different occasions, it is 
hardly possible to detect a species not represented on the reefs of the 
Cocos. On similar I’eefs in South Andaman, however, a second species of 
Cymodocea, quite as profuse where it exists, but more local in its occur¬ 
rence, has been gathered, and on a similar reef in Little Andaman large 
meadows of Halophila ovalis were found associated with those of Gymo- 
docea. The beach between such a reef and the Pandanus sea-fence con¬ 
sists, so far as the winter’s observations extend, almost exclusively of 
coral sand mixed with small shells or fine fragments of large shells. The 
heavy surf in such a bay as this breaks at the outer margin of the reef, 
and even at high-tide in rough weather the swell is so weakened there 
that the waves which break on the beach are not so heavy as to have 
any great erosive power. Indeed their effect appears to be on the whole 
accretive, for the sand that accumulates at the head of the bay becomes 
bound by Ipomoea biloba, Sesuvium, Euphorbia Atoto, etc., the Pandanus 
fence encroaches on the beds of Ipomoea; the coco-nut zone widens sea¬ 
wards, and behind it the first line of beach-forest, containing Terminalia, 
Eernandia, Erythrina, Pongamia, Stephegyne, Thespesia, and the second 
line of the same forest, characterised by Mimusops, Gyrocarpus, Pisonia, 
Ardisia, Gycas assert themselves in an area previously covered by the 
tides. In certain situations, too, the true mangroves stalk forwai’d into 
the tolerably quiet waters of these bays, while in a different but equally 
effective manner, by sending up suckers from among its curious pith-like 
roots, Avicennia establishes itself upon the reef. The guyed and stilted 
habit of the former makes their position very secure; the latter, 
from the enormous area covered by its roots, must also be difficult to 
overthrow. The process of land-making behind a fringing reef, either 
as a sandy flat covered with coco-nut trees, or as a mangrove swamp 
spreading seawards, is well exemplified in the two bays lying respec¬ 
tively to the south and to the north of the position of the first season’s 
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camp ; the effects are so like what must result if land werej^slowly rising 
that it is only after careful examination of all the conditions that one’s 
mind becomes disabused of this specious impression. There is no 
direct evidence that the land is rising and, as will be evident on con¬ 
sidering what has been said above, there is no necessity for supposing 
that it is. But though this is a very common type of bay, it is not 
the only type. On Great Coco, in some cases, and on Little Coco very 
generally a different stage may be observed. The shallow pools described 
as existing between the surf-built embankment at the margin of the 
fringing-reef and the beach, have in them many living corals that raise 
great rings which rise to almost the surface of the water in the pool 
at low-tide and, like huge lichens, grow peripherally till they meet and 
coalesce. The surf, too, breaks off pieces of greater or smaller size 
which are lodged in the pool behind, and by-and-bye become moi’e or 
less cemented together. In this way the whole of a pool becomes in time 
completely filled up with growing coral and cemented blocks, and there 
are many reefs, especially on Little Coco, that are completely uncovered 
at low-tide, while small patches of similar reef are here and there seen 
that ordinarily the high-tides do not cover. The uniformity that the 
surfaces of some of these exposed reefs display is very striking. They 
are almost as even as a paved floor and are as bare and destitute of 
marine vegetation as they are of living coral. The edge of such a reef, 
in place of being a fairly continuous embankment higher than the floor 
of the bay behind, is now broken into hundreds of jagged gulleys through 
which the wave-wash from the almost level platform tears its way back 
to the deep water beyond the fringing-reef. The main interest of this 
stage of the reef is less, however, from the present point of view, its 
actual physical condition than its effect on the vegetation of the shore. 

Behind a coral bay like one of those first described, and which charac¬ 
terises a less advanced stage of the history of the fringing-reef, has gone 
on a long and steady growth of land, with some shingle in it doubt¬ 
less, especially as one approaches the nearest ridge, but chiefly composed 
of coral sand with a thin coating of humus derived from the vegetation 
it has supported. The main force of the surf has for long been spent on 
the outer embankment, and the force of the waves that at high-water 
passed over its top has been so much diminished ere these reached 
the beach that there they did not act destructively. Wow all this is 
altered. At low-tide the force of the surf is still all expended on the 
edge of the reef, but as soon as the water has risen so high that the edge 
of the reef is covered, this force instead of being dissipated in the deeper 
water of a pool is accentuated as the breakers roll landward across a reef 
on which the water shallows slightly as the shore is approached; by the 

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time tlie surf ceases to break on che edge of tbe reef practically its whole 
force rolls in over this even and slightly shallowing reef till it falls on 
the shore in huge erosive breakers that eat away the soil, so that Pandanus 
fence, coco-nut zone, and beach-forest all in turn disappear, and the 
waves at high tide gidnd on the, prostrate stems of huge Mimusops, 
Ficus JRiWmphii, and Dipterocarpus trees, and undermine the I’oots of 
their old companions that are still standing but that the next storm will 
lay beside those on the beach. But this active denudation no more 
indicates a sinking of the land than do the heightened reefs that cause 
the action indicate that the land has lusen, and as direct indications either 
of rising or of sinking are altogether absent we must conclude that the 
islands are at present practically stationary. But it is interesting to 
find, as one does here, in adjacent bays, such diverse indications of the 
same condition. 

There are bays of a third type in the group, few in number, however, 
and of small size, in which the water is deep quite up to the beach ; the 
sweep of the waves in these is extremely large, even when the sea outside 
is quiet, owing to the strong currents that prevail round the islands. They 
have all, as might be expected, rocky sides ; the beaches on which the 
waves break are of sand, not shingle, and owing apparently to this ex¬ 
cessive sweep of the waves the Pandanus fence and coco-nut zone at the 
head of such a bay is a good number of yards away from the beach, a 
considerable sand-bank covered with Ipomcea hiloba, Vigna lutea and 
other sand-binding species, intervening between the limits of ordinary 
tides and the woody vegetation. 

The nature of the beaches behind the numerous long, comparatively 
flat sandstone ledges, exposed at low-water and therefore not coral- 
covered, has yet to be noted. Such beaches are always of coral-shingle 
mixed with large shells, the pieces of coral being rounded or oblong and 
sometimes of considerable size. The most remarkable example of such 
a beach in this group is that at the south end and south-east corner of 
Little Coco where the sandstone reef is particularly extensive and where 
the south-west monsoon must break with singular force. This beach 
consists of an abrupt shingle wall, in many places 6 or 7 feet high, and 
yet not much wider at the base than twice its own height. Though very 
steep towards the sea-face it slopes more gradually at the back ; behind 
it at this point there stretches a low flat tract of muddy land not much 
higher than the reef itself, covered by a dense jungle of Hibiscus tiliaceus, 
Vitex Negundo, Leea, and similar shrubs, but with few trees, the whole 
loaded with tangled masses of Gassytha. The Pandanus fence is here 
particularly dense, and along with it are coco-nut trees growing on the 
shingle ; from the appearance and size of these it seems clear that, slight 

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as the defence seems, this shingle beach completely prevents erosion 
though at the same time accretion is probably very slow. In the case 
of the highest and most advanced coral reefs usually the same shino-le 
beach occurs ; from which fact we might conclude that as the initial 
stage of any fringing-reef must have been that of a simple submerged 
sandstone ledge of greater or less extent, we see here the original shingle 
beach, thrown up where this ledge originally became subaerial, to which 
the waves have eaten back over the present raised reef until all the 
sandy soil formed during the earlier “ embankment and pool ” stage has, 
with the vegetation it supported, been swept into the sea. This shingle 
having been reached the erosive action has been checked, and the surer, 
if slower process of shingle accumulation has been initiated or, at all 
events, renewed. From this account of these bays it will be seen that 
the fringing-reef exhibits in some parts a phase more advanced than it 
exhibits in others. But it does not therefore follow that these more 
advanced “ platform ” portions are older than the earlier “ embankment 
and pool ” portions. They cannot, in one sense, be so old, for we must 
suppose that all these reefs commenced contemporaneously, and the 
“ embankment and pool ” reefs are still growing, whereas the “ platform ” 
reefs have now no living coral. The different stages therefore merely 
indicate that the sandstone reefs running out from the headlands in 
which the various ridges end are in different parts of the islands situated 
at different depths, and the condition of the reefs indicates that the 
sandstone ledges are shallower, and that deep water is further from the 
shore towards the south than towards the north end of the islands. At 
quite the southern extremity of Little Coco bare sandstone reefs, too 
shallow for the growth of a coral fringing-reef, stretch away south¬ 
eastward in much the same way as the well-known Alguada reefs extend 
southward off Cape Negrais. On the east coast of Little Coco are high 
coral reefs exposed at low-tide, fringed by a coral-shingle beach, while 
towards the north end of the island are similar high reefs fringed by a 
shore of sandy soil which, with the beach-forest growing on it, is being 
washed away by the sea. On the west coast, where the reefs are high, 
and, though still in the “ pool ” stage appear from their jagged edges 
to be approaching the “ platform ” stage, a line of low sand-dunes, per- 
' haps the highest development of the epoch of sand-accretion, have been 
thrown up; these at present protect the shore and have actually closed 
up, at the south-west corner, the mouth of a mangrove-creek. 

Similarly, in Great Coco, near the southern extremity and between 
the main island and Jerry there is a lai’ge bare sandstone reef which ex¬ 
hibits very well the arrangement and dip of the strata; further up the 
east coast denudation is going on, still further north the site of a beach- 

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forest is being composed by accretion, while at the north end a mangrove 
forest is invading the sea. The west coast of Great Coco is more or less 
rocky and abrupt, for nearly the whole extent of the island. 

No denudation is taking place in Table Island, the shores of which 
rise rather abruptly from the beach in most of its circumference, though 
there is a bay at the north side looking towards Slipper Island that is 
fringed with Pemphis acidida and has a small flat space immediately 
within its Pandanus fence. 

When the beach between the reef and the Pandanus sea-fence 
consists of coral sand it is usual to find outside the jungle proper a belt 
of Ipomoea biloha, at times covered with parasitic Cassytha ; where it is 
composed of shingle Ipomoea biloha may also occur, though it is more 
usual to find its place taken by Ipomoea denticulata. Along with these 
Ipomoeas occur Euphorbia Atoto and, less frequently, Sesuvium Porhdacas- 
trum. Usually just within these occurs the common sea-face jungle- 
fence of Pandanus, Sophora tomentosa, Gcesalpinia Bonducella, Tournefortia 
argentea, Desmodium umbellatum, Premna integrifolia, Glerodendron inerme, 
Goluhrina asiatica, Ganavalia obtusifolia, Vigna lutea, Ouettarda speciosa, 
Allophylus Gobhe, etc., and then, particularly if the beach is a shingle 
one, as trees in the same zone, Ixora hrunnescens, Terminalia Gatappa, very 
common, Stephegyne diversifolia, Thespesia populnea, Hernandia peltata, 
Erythrina indica, Pongamia glabra, Ficus Bumphii, Barringtonia speciosa, 
Gyrocarpus Jacquinii, etc., with a thin line of Gocos nucifera growing up 
slantingly beneath these and sti’etching their crowns seawards as if in 
search of light. Where the beach is sandy the sea-face jungle makes a 
less dense hedge, and within it lies a flat space of sandy soil with a grove 
of Gocos nucifera, stretching back from 10 to 100 yards to where, usually 
on lower and muddy ground tunnelled by Gardisoma and other land- 
crabs, commences a dense jungle that shades off almost insensibly into the 
vegetation of a true mangrove-swamp. The sand beneath the coco-nut 
trees in these groves is covered in Great Coco by a close sward of Thuarea 
sarmentosa, with here and there patches of Ipomoea biloha, clumps of 
Tacca pinnatifida, or large examples of Grinum asiaticum and Gycas Bum~ 
phii, and with patches of Erantheinum here and there beneath these. 
The more rocky portions of the coast have in the sea-face jungle-fence 
described above some other species that do not seem to care for sand or 
shingle, sirch as Hibiscus tiliaceus, Taberncemontana crispa, Desmodium 
polycarpon and Desmodium triquetrum, Briedelia, Derris idiginosa, Pluohea 
indica, etc. Within the coco-nut zone on the flat land we meet with 
more Gyrocarpus Jacquinii, with the Andamanese Bullet-wood (Mimus- 
ops littoralis), various species of Dipterocarpus, Miliiisa sp., common, 
and some species of Meliacece; the climbing undergrowth in this tract 

i02 


293 


is very characteristic, more so than the trees, consisting of Ccesalpinia 
Nuga, Gapparis sepiaria, and, very largely, of Pisonia aculeata. In 
the more muddy soil which occurs on the outskirts of the mangrove- 
swamps other shrubs and creepers occur; such as Leea sambucina with 
stilted roots like the mangroves, Cynometra ramifiora, Hibiscus tiliaceus, 
Flagellaria indica, Mucuna gigantea, remai’kably common, Sarcostigma 
edule, Plecospernum andamanicuni, Antitaxis calocarpa, Salacia prinoides, 
which extends also into the swamp proper, Acrostichum scandens, etc • 
Not infrequent in such situations, when there is no high forest over¬ 
head is Vitex Negundo which is particularly common on Little Coco. 
In this muddy tract the tall trees remain much the same as in the 
drier area just behind the beach. Farther inward the vegetation is that 
characteristic of a true mangrove swamp, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Bhizophora, 
Aegiceras, Avicennia. The Avicennia, strangely, does not appear to be 
common in many of the creeks, though there is one creek, on the east 
side and near the south end of Gireat Coco, in which it is the prevailing 
tree; except indeed for a few Bruguiera gymnorhiza trees along the 
open channel of the creek, the whole swamp consists of Avicennia 
officinalis with thousands of its curious roots protruding through the 
mud and water as described already in a former paper (/. A. S. B. 
vol. lix, p. 272) ; considering the situation and loose structure of these 
roots, which are of the consistence of solah-pith, there seems every pos¬ 
sibility that they are concerned in the process of transpiration ; the large 
area covered by the roots of each tree must also afford great stability to 
a species which affects, as this one does, the situation of the mangroves 
without having their stilted roots. In this particular swamp each tree 
was loaded with the climbing form of Salacia prinoides and, as the latter 
happened to be in flower at the time of the visit, the foetid nature of 
the atmosphere experienced may be imagined. 

Between the headlands, in most cases, a choked-up creek is to be 
found ; generally this extends but a short way into the jungle, though 
sometimes it winds about on the level ground for a considerable distance 
as a mangi-ove-swamp. In two places the creeks on Great Coco are 
apparently open at all times to the tide ; the chief creek is that which 
debouches at the north end of the island. There are no open creeks in 
the other two islands, though at the south-west corner of Little Coco 
what has been a creek of considerable extent is now converted into 
a large lagoon by a broad bank of sand having been blown and beaten 
up by the south-west monsoon into a Arm embankment across its former 
outlet. 

On the ridges the trees are much the same, as to species, as on the 
lower ground, except that the Miliusa which is common below is scarce 

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there, and the Gyrocarpus is rather uncommon. The Mimtisops too, is 
not so abundant on the drier ground. The Pandanus, however, espe¬ 
cially on the western side of the islands, ascends to the tops of the 
ridges and along with the Gapparis sepiaria occurs Capparis oxyphylla 
(0. tenera, var.), the other common creepers being Lygodium flexuosum, 
Ahrus precatorius, Mezoneuron enneaphyllum, Mucuna pruriens, Thun- 
hergia laurifolia, Dioscorea (two species), Calamus (two species) ex¬ 
ceedingly abundant and making an almost impassable cane-brake es¬ 
pecially on the crests of the ridges ; Pcederia foetida is another common 
creeper, as also is Modecca cordifoUa. The jungle with which these 
are associated contains, besides the shrubs met with on the lower 
ground, thickets of Gyclostemon assamicus and other Euphorbiaceous 
shrubs, Alsodeia hengalensis, Glyptopetalum calocarpum, Grewia (two 
species), Diplospora singularis, Ficus (several species), etc. On one 
hill, in Great Coco, there is a limited patch of bamboo-jungle, the 
species being a Bendrocalamus, probably a variety of B. Strictus. This 
species also occurs on Table Island, where flowering specimens were 
obtained, and at first there seemed to be room for doubt as to whether it 
might not have been introduced on the lighthouse-island, though certainly 
it only occurs there in the untouched jungle and no examples exist in the 
clearing. The presence of the same species, however, in quantity, in the 
interior of Great Coco, on a hill which it is hardly extravagant to sup¬ 
pose had not been before ascended by any one, may be held to dispose 
finally of the doubt. Among the features of the jungle on exposed sea- 
slopes that are not grass-clad must be noted the presence in quantity, be¬ 
sides the other creepers found on the ridges, of Ipomoea palmata, Ipomoea 
grandijlora and Convolvulus parvijlorus, the latter a particularly charac¬ 
teristic species on the west coast. The herbaceous undergrowth consists 
of Oplismemis compositus, Cypertis elegans, and a few other sedges and 
grasses in local patches or as stray examples; in places also occur patches 
ol Alocasia fornicata, Calanthesp. (apparently C. veratrifolia), Braccena 
spicata, Besmodium laxiflorum ; in one place nearly in the centre of the 
island, some plants of TJrena lobata (this species does not occur in the 
clearings of either island and cannot here be looked upon a weed in¬ 
troduced by human agency) ; in the drier parts considerable quantities 
of Acrostichum appendiculatum; along the sides of dry torrents a good 
deal of Adiantum lunulatum; and in one or two damp, flat spots Gerato- 
pteris thalictroides. 

On Table Island the west side has been artificially cleared and it is 
impossible to say that it ever has been jungle-covered, but several of the 
headlands on the west side of the Great Coco, as has already been men¬ 
tioned, have naturally bare grassy slopes. There are none of these, 
104 


295 

however, on the Little Coco. The principal grass on these slopes, and 
throughout the two clearings as well, is the very uninviting Andropogon 
contortus, mixed with a small amount of Ischoemum ciliare; besides these 
there is some Cyperus polystachyus, and in the clearings of both islands 
Eleusine indica in tufts, with here and there a little Panicum colonum. 
In Table Island, though not in Great Coco, Eleusine cegyptiaca and Panic¬ 
um llelopus have also become established. In this connection it should 
be mentioned that Thuarea sarmentosa, which is the common sward- 
grass under the coco-nut trees of Great Coco, is very rare in Little Coco ; 
the only spot where the coco-nut zone is there of any width has Ischcemum 
muticum growing throughout it in abundance; in Great Coco Ischcemum 
muticum is rare. 

On the low ground the epiphytes in the taller trees are two species 
of Hoy a, Scindapsus officinalis, Dendrohium sectmdum (the only common 
light-loving orchid, which is particularly common on trees of Heritiera 
littoralis, etc., about the mouths of creeks), Bavallia solida, Polypodium 
(Niphobolus) adnascens, and Polypodium quercifolium. There is a great 
absence of epiphytes from the trees growing in the interior, the ferns 
mentioned are in particular confined to the trees nearest the sea. In the 
muddy ground behind mangrove-swamps there are on the stems of 
Gynometra and other trees, great numbers of an oi’chid that proves, on 
having been flowered in the Calcutta garden, to be a Potites with violet 
flowers ; apparently, however, it is only a variety of D. Wightii. 

Perhaps a better idea of the vegetation of the islands may be ob¬ 
tained if extracts from the writer’s notes, enumerating the species met with 
in particular localities, be given. Of these only a few are selected, illus¬ 
trative, as far as possible, of different kinds of soil and of diverse situa¬ 
tions. From these it will be seen that any attempt to divide the forest 
into distinct zones and regions is attended with difficulty, since the 
various forests— Mangrove, Beach, Mud-fiat, dind jungles—merge 

into each other on every hand. 

In crossing the island on the drier level ground near the south 
end of the island one finds after the belt of coco-nuts, which is there 
about 100 yards wide on the western side, a jungle at first not very 
dense of Ganarium commune; Aglaia andamanica; Miliusasp .; Gyrocarpu,s 
Jacquinii, very common ; Mimusops littoralis, the most common tree, with 
often great masses of Hoya, and near the sea with Polypodium querci¬ 
folium as epiphytes—all the Mimusops here is uniformly dying back in 
the topmost branches ; Bomhax sp., looking much more like B. mala- 
baricum as to leaves than like the Andaman species identified by Kurz 
withP. insigne; Dracontomelum sylvestre; Spondias mangifera; Semecarpus 
heterophylla ; Albizzia procera-; Bipteroearpvs sp. ; Sterculia alata ; Erio- 

105 


296 


dendron anfractuosum, etc. Under the Cocos nucifera on the sandy soil a 
sward of Thuarea sarmentosa with patches of Ipomoea hiloha and with a 
quantity of JEranthemum succifoliuvi; further inland there is a dense 
undergrowth of Glycosmis pentaphylla ; Ardisia humilis ; Ficus brevicuspis 
and Ficus DoBmonum ; Alsodeia hengalensis; Ohjptopetalum cahcarpum ; 
Cyclostemon assamicus; etc.—covered with a mass of Fisonia aculeata ; 
CcBsalpinia Nuga ; Capparis sepiaria ; Mucuna gigantea, less common here 
than on muddy soil; Calamus sp., not very common ; Sarcostigma edule ; 
Antitaxis calocarpa; Ferris scandens; Thunhergia laurifolia; Fioscorea, 
two sp.; Vitis pedata, very common ; Acacia ruhricaulis, often. Of sub- 
herbaceous plants may be mentioned Fraccena spicata, it is, however, less 
common on level ground than on the ridges. Further on were met with 
Cynometra ramijlora, with occasionally Forites Wightii epiphytal, but less 
commonly so than where the soil is moist and muddy; considerable 
quantities of Leea sambucina ; Sterculia villosa, as a small tree ; Stephegyne 
diversifolia, though rarely ", Artoca^pus Gomeziana; Terminalia bialata ; 
some Siphonodon celastrineus; Oroxyhim indicum ; and, as the opposite side 
of the island is approached, Crotonsublyratus; Hernandiapeltata; Sterculia 
rubiginosa; Terminalia Catappa ; Erythrina indica ; and the Pandanus sea- 
fence. Just before reaching this coast-zone a single example of a 
stemless palm {Livistona sp. ?) was met with ; another example of this 
was obtained on the hill where the 1889 encampment was made at the 
north-east corner of the island. In cutting a path across the island at 
another point a le-vel sandy tract was reached on which for several hun¬ 
dred yards grew nothing except young Gyrocarpus Jacquinii. 

Crossing at a point where a ridge had to be passed it was found 
that much of the flat land behind the coco-nut zone was taken up with 
a jungle of Gyrocarpus Jacquinii, Macaranga Tanarius and Mallotus 
andamanicus to the exclusion of other species ; but even as far as the 
base of the ridge many fruits of Cocos nucifera that had been floated 
inland during the rainy season, when the whole of this level tract is 
evidently water-covered, are germinating freely and some coco-nut trees 
that have reached the light have begun to bear. On the ridge itself a 
dense jungle prevails, much matted, especially along the crest, with 
creepers ; the chief of these is Thtinbergia laurifolia, the others being 
Fioscorea sp.; Capparis sepiaria and Capparis tenera ; Ferris uliginosa; 
Anodendron paniculatum; Abrus precatorhis and A. pulchellus ; Calamus / 
Pcediria fcetida ; Modecca ; Trichosanthes palmata; Porana spectahilis ; a 
little further along this ridge the west side and the flat land at its 
base was found to be a dense thicket of Caryota sobolifera ; the herba¬ 
ceous undergrowth was remarkably sparse and consisted of a few plants 
of Zingiber sp.; some patches of Alocasia, and a few patches of Oplis- 

106 


297 


menus. The eastern side of this ridge had no flat land between it and 
the sea and was rather more open, the tall trees and creepers were much 
as on the west side, with the addition of Argyreia tilicefolia and A. 
HooTceri; large masses of Erycibe paniculata, which is here always a 
heavy climber arid not shrubby; and among the undergrowth with the 
addition of Claoxylon sp.; Oorypha sp.; and near the shore Blachia anda- 
manica; PlucJiea indica; Cnesmone javanica. On bare isolated rocks 
lying well out on the reefs, and never covered completely by the tide, the 
species found are always Fimhristylis sp. ; Cyperus pennatus; and Boer- 
haavia repens. The same species also occur on bare rocky patches of the 
coast all round the island but especially on the west coast. Other 
species associated with these in such situations are Besmodiuni polycar- 
pon; D. triquetrum; Blumea virens; Vernonia diver gens; V. cinerea • 
Pluchea indica, etc. 

The isthmus uniting the outlying peninsula at the north-east corner 
with the main island has, mixed with the coco-nut trees occurring there, 
a sparse forest of Mimusops and Bipterocarpus, with an undergrowth 
towards the north coast almost exclusively of Macaranga Tanarius, to- 
wards the south almost entirely of Bodoncea viscosa, though here and 
there on hummocks of soil as opposed to sand, are other trees, like 
Oroxylum indicum ; Heterophragma adenophyllum, etc. Among the her¬ 
baceous species here the most noteworthy is Artisomeles ovata, the only 
Labiate on the islands, which is, however, at this particular spot, very 
plentiful. On the coast of the north-east peninsula Physalis minima 
is a common species, it occurs, however, in similar situations here and 
there on both the Great and the Little Coco; on the slope above 
Strobilanthes pJtyllostachyus is gregarious and plentiful, as it likewise is 
at the north end of Little Coco in a similar situation. 

As an example of the vegetation of level ground, where the soil is 
shingle instead of sand, the north end of Jerry island may be described. 
Here on the beach is a dense thicket of Pemphis acidula ; behind this, 
a few examples of Pandanus odoratissimus ; many Scoevola Kcenigii ; some 
Tournefortia argentea and Sophora tomentosa bushes ; many coco-nut trees- 
much Ccesalpinia Bonducella. Behind this sea-fence the shingle is cover¬ 
ed with a mass of Ipomcea biloba, a striking contrast to what occurs at 
the north-east corner of the island where the shingle has 1 . denticulata 
only. The trees on this shingle are Terminalia Gatappa, Cocos nucifera, 
Ardisia humilis, Ixora brunnescens, Guettarda speciosa, Macaranga Tana- 
rius, Mimusops littoralis, Gyrocarpus Jacquinii, Hernandia peltata. Be¬ 
sides the Ipomoea the only herbaceous vegetation consisted of a few 
fruiting Amorphophalli; the tubers of these brought to Calcutta have 
since sent up bulbiferous leaves that shew the species to be nearly 

107 


298 


related to, but probably quite distinguishable from, A. hulbifer and A. 
tuhercuUger, the two species hitherto known which exhibit this character. 
The east side of this island has outside the Pandanus fence, which is 
there about three times as broad and thick as on the west, a belt of 
Thespesia populnea and Ouettarda speciosa, with patches of Pemphis 
acidula and Clerodendron inerme, and some trees of Cordia suhcordata 
and Champereia Griffithiana as well as a few thickets of Vitex Negundo 
and Desmodium umbellatum. 

The sandy isolated spit on the reef between Great Coco and Jerry 
Island is not covered even by spring-tides—it is about 70 feet long from 
north to south by some 30 feet across, and at the time of the writer’s 
visit there could be counted on it (mostly near the east side, and towards 
the south end) about a dozen germinating coco-nuts; three seedling 
Hibiscus tiliaceus, a seedling Thespesia, some seedlings of Gyrocarpus, four 
seedling Mimina, two seedling Erythrina, six seedling Garapa moluccensis, 
one seedling PavTingtonia speciosa, one seedling Entada scandens, some 
young Ipomcea biloba, and one young Gynometra, with two or three other 
species not recognised. 

In general features Little Coco so greatly resembles the other 
islands that it is unnecessary to deal with it in detail. The chief 
feature is perhaps the great abundance of Gorypha elata and Siphonodon 
celastrineus; still both species were met with, though sparingly, on the 
Great Coco. 

Before concluding, however, this general account of the vegetation of 
the islands the two fresh water accumulations deserve to be more parti¬ 
cularly noted. That on the Great Coco consists of a small lake in the 
narrow neck of land that joins the outlying north-eastern peninsula to 
the rest of the island. This lakelet is about 300 yards long and hardly 
100 yards wide, with its longer diameter across the isthmus. Its depth is 
a little over 3 feet; it is uniformly deep from side to side and from end 
to end, with a hard, even bottom. At either end it is only separated from 
the sea by some 80 to 100 yards of shingle bank, and it seems difficult 
to understand why the water it contains does not ooze out, and how it 
is that it is unaffected by the adjacent salt water, since the bottom of 
the lake is lower than the point reached by the waves that beat up on 
the single beach, if not actually lower than the level of the highest tides. 
The bottom seems to be no more than the floor of what has formerly 
been a shallow bay on the fringing-reef, and the shingle banks which 
separate it at either end from the sea seem to be nothing more than the 
ultimate embankments that would result when the causeways connecting 
outlying islets with the main island are so enlarged by accretion as to 
cease to be covered by the tides. This postulates that the present out- 

108 


299 


lying north-eastern peninsula had originally been detached from the 
main island and, being an islet of considerable width, that a causeway, 
ultimately becoming an embankment, has been thrown up by wave-action 
from each of the two adjacent bays. Soil washed down from the adjacent 
slopes during the rainy season has in the form of fine silt closed up the 
porous shingle banks at either end till these can now retain the fresh 
water within them and prevent the percolation of sea-water from with¬ 
out. To the east side of this lake there is a small flat meadow covered 
with KylUnga and Fimbistylis along with some Gyperus polystachyus but 
very little grass. Whether this meadow was originally a naturally bare 
patch or is only part of the clearing made in connection with the 
abandoned settlement on the adjacent hill it is difficult to say. If, how¬ 
ever, it was artificially cleared, it is unlike the rest of the clearing in 
this, that no woody jungle is reappearing in it now. At the time of our 
visit a number of snipe frequented the meadow. Close to the edge of 
the lake is a continuous belt of Hygrophila quadrivalvis; within this, and 
extending into the water, is a belt of Polygonum all round the margin of 
the lake ; inside the Polygonum float large matted patches of Panicuin 
Myurus. Here and there are patches Limnanthemum indicum; there 
is also a considerable quantity of Nymphcea rubra. The ordinary white 
Nymphcea Lotus, so common in similar spots in the Andamans, is not 
present, a circumstance which inclines one to think that this red water- 
lily may have possibly been introduced during the attempt to settle in 
the island. The water is quite potable and apparently wholesome; 
neither Chara nor Zanichellia is present, perhaps the water is rather 
deep for these. 

Very different in many respects is the lagoon on Little Coco 
which is simply a mangrove creek that has been banked off fram 
the sea by a small sand-dune having been thrown up across its mouth. 
It is not more than 1^-2 feet deep anywhere, with also a level but at 
the same time a softer botlom than the Grreat Coco lake, and this bot¬ 
tom is covered uniformly throughout by a meadow of Ghara mixed with 
Zanichellia. Here the water, though perhaps potable on an emergency, 
and though used by native craft that call in for it, is slightly 
brackish, and the lake is fringed throughout by Bruguiera, Lumnitzera, 
Geriops, Avicennia. etc., while clumps of similar mangrove trees occur 
throughout it. Its area is considerably greater than that of the Great 
Coco lake, for it is about a quarter of a mile long and a furlong across 
at the widest part; it was haunted at the time of our visit by teal. 
Here, curiously enough, Panicum Myurus does not occur, its place ^being 
taken by Paspalum scrohiculatum which floats in great patches at its 
south-western corner. There is no Limnanthemum and the Nymphcea 

109 


300 


pi’esent is, as in the Andamans in such situations, the common A. Lotus 
and not, as in the Great Coco, the red-flowered variety. On the banks 
and extending into the water are considerable beds of Scirpus suhulatus 
which does not occur in the other lake. Here on the other hand there 
is neither Polygonum nor Hygrophila present. 

Beyond the coco-nuts the vegetable products of the island can 
hardly be very highly assessed. Miniipsops Uttoralis (Andamanese 
Bullet-wood) is common and so is Lagerstrcemia hypoleuca (Anda¬ 
manese Pyen-ma) ; Ptercarpus indicus (Padouk) is rare however; and 
even of second- or third-rate timber trees such as Liospyros Kurzii (Zebra- 
wood) ; Bipterocarpus sp. (Wood-oil trees) ; Heritiera (Sundri) ; there is 
no great quantity ; the only bamboo found {Bendrocalamus strictus var ?) 
is not very valuable and is not abundant; while the only abundant natural 
grass {Andropogon contortus) is so uninviting that the cattle on the 
island prefer eating Pandanus leaves to grazing it. 

In the subjoined list of the species obtained during the two visits 
(which must not, however, be considered complete, though it may safely 
be assumed to be representative of the vegetation of the islands), it will 
be seen that a number of species are undetermined. As a matter of fact 
they are probably mostly species hitherto undescribed, but owing to the 
shortness of time at the writer’s disposal, and owing to both the visits 
being at the same season of the year, it was impossible to obtain com¬ 
plete material of these, and it has therefore been impossible to prepare for 
them specific descriptions. In some cases roots or seeds of these have 
been brought to Calcutta and are now in cultivation there, so that their 
identification will, it is hoped, only be a matter of time. 

In pi’esenting this list the writer wishes to acknowledge much kind 
assistance received by him in its preparation ; as regards Phanerogams, 
from his friends Mr. W. B, Hemsley, p. e. s., who has kindly com¬ 
pared a number of the more critical specimens at Ke^v ; Mr. J. F Duthie, 
F. L. s., who kindly assisted him in naming the grasses, and Mr. J. S. 
Gamble, p. L. s., who examined the solitary bamboo; and as regards 
Cryptogams, from Dr. G. King, p. r. s., who kindly assisted him in 
determining the Ferns; Mr. G. Massee, p. l. s , who, through the good 
oflfices of Mr. Hemsley, kindly named the Fungi and supplied the des¬ 
cription of a new species of Xylaria; and Mr. G. R. Milne Murray, 
p. L. s., who, through the intervention of Dr. King, most kindly examined 
the Algce. 

The list IS followed by an analysis indicating its systematic, its 
physical, and its phytogeographic nature. 

no 


301 


§ § List of Plants collected in the Great Coco, Little Coco and 

Table Island, 

PHANEROGAMS. 

Thalamiflorji. 

ANONACES. 

1. Miliusa sp. 

Great Coco ; Little Coco ; very common in both islands. 

The specimens obtained are in fruit only ; the leaves are glabrous 
but otherwise are much like those of M. Boxhurghiana; the fruits are 
very like those of M. macrocar'pa. 

MENISPERMACES. 

2. Ctclba peltata H. f. and T. 

Great Coco; common. 

Burma, Nicobars. Not previously recorded from the Andaman 
group. 

3. Antitaxis calocarpa Kurz. 

Great Coco ; common. 

Andamans, Nicobars. 

NYMPHSACES. 

4. NTMPH.aiA Lotus Linn. 

Great Coco; plentiful in the small lake at the north-east corner of 
the island—ojily the red flowered form (N. rubra Roxb.). Little Coco j 
sparingly in the lake at the south-west corner of the island—only the 
white form (N. Lotus Linn.). 

This species is not included in any Andamans list and Kurz (^Report 
on the Vegetation of the Andamans, p. 15) comments on the absence of 
Nymphjiace.®. As a matter of fact this species does occurs in the Anda¬ 
mans; as does Barclaya longifolia. Nymphcea Lotus is very plentiful 
everywhere about the settlement at Port Blair, and in one arm of a creek 
that had been shut off from the tide by a bank of earth only three months 
before, the writer in December 1890 found hundreds of seedling plants 
already springing up. The lake in which it occurs on Little Coco is 
only a mangrove creek naturally closed from the sea by a sand-bank and 
the water is still slightly brackish; the vegetation around consists of 
Bruguiera, Lumnitzera, Geriops, Avicennia, and other mangrove swamp 
species. 


Ill 


302 


CAPPARIDE^. 

5. Cappabis sepiabia Linn. var. gbandifolia Kurz Mss. ex Prain, Jour. 
As. Soc., Beng., lix, Pt. 2, p. 275. 

Table Island; Great Coco; Little Coco. Very common everywhere 
in the group, both on ridges and flat land. 

Diamond Island (Arracan) ; Andamans; Java; Bali; Madura. 

6. Cappabis tbneea Dalz. var. latifolia H. f. and T. (C. oxyphylla 
Wall.) 

Table Island; Great Coco; Little Coco. Very common everywhere 
in the group, but only on ridges. 

Tenasserim; Andamans (Middle Island and South Island). 

VIOLACE^. 

7. Alsodeia bengalensis Wall. 

Table Island; Great Coco; Little Coco. One o£ the commonest 
undershrubs in the group. 

Silhet, rare; Martaban, frequent; Andamans, very common every¬ 
where ; Nicobars, very rare. 


GUTTIFERJE. 

8. Gaecinia ? sp. 

Great Coco. 

An altogether doubtful plant represented by one leaf specimen 
among the plants collected by Mr. Kurz in 1866 ; nothing resembl¬ 
ing it was met with in 1889 or 1890. Mr. Kurz did not himself 
collect in Great Coco. A deputation that visited the island while 
he was at Port Blair brought him a few specimens; there may even be 
some confusion as to the locality—the deputation visited Narcondani 
and elsewhere as well as the Cocos. 

9. Calophtlltjm inophtllum Linn. 

Little Coco. In beach-forests on shingle behind the sea-face vege¬ 
tation, not common. 

Shores of India Andamans, Kicobars, Burma, Malaya, Polynesia, 
Australia, and E. African islands. 


DIPTEROCARPE^. 

10. Diptebocaepus pilosus Roxb. ? 

Great Coco; eastern coast, inland from Ford Bay, common. Only 
leaf specimens obtained and it is not impossible that they may belong to 
D. Ori^thii, Miq. 

112 


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11. Diptbrocaepus alatus Roxb. 

Great Coco ; common. Little Coco; infrequent. 

Chittagong, Burma, Tenasserim, Andamans. 

MALVACE^. 

12. SiDA ACUTA Burm. 

Table Island ; cleared hillsides near lighthouse. 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed. 

13. Urena lobata Linn. 

Great Coco ; in one spot only, in interior of island. 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed, introduction in this case may be 
attributed to bird agency. It hardly seemed to be indigenous as there 
were where it was gathered only a few plants. Yet human agency 
appears impossible : the species is not present at the north-east of Great 
Coco where once a small clearing was made, nor on Table Island where 
there is now a large clearing. It does not seem to be present in the 
Little Coco. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

14. Hibiscus Sabdarifpa Linn. 

Great Coco only ; as if spontaneous in the small clearing ; one of the 
few remains of a garden that existed during the short time an attempt 
was made to settle in the island ; the few plants seemed unhealthy. 
Cultivated in the tropics. 

15. Hibiscus Abelmoschus Linn. 

Table Island only ; common throughout the cleai'ing, escaped from 
cultivation. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

16. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. 

Table Island ; Great Coco ; Little Coco ; common, especially on the 
western coast, also plentiful at times in muddy flats behind mangrove 
swamps. A stunted almost glabrous form occurs on coral-shingle on Jerry 
Island. 

Littoral species, cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

17. Thespesia populnea Corr. 

Very common on all the islands. 

Littoral species on all tropical coasts in eastern hemisphere, intro¬ 
duced into West Indies. 

18. Bombax insigne Wall.Pmrs.—?? 

There are two forms of Bombax present in the islands:— 

1. A tree with armed trunk and branches; Zeq/?e^s about 6, entire, 
narrowly lanceolate 5-8 inches long, I—1| inches wide, gradually 
tapering to both ends almost sessile, stamens numerous. This is com- 

113 


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mon in all the islands, and if the writer is correct in considering the 
character of armed or unarmed trunk a trivial one, is the common 
Bonibax in S. Andaman, The leaves suit exactly, and though in S. 
Andaman the trunk of old tall trees is smooth, young saplings are 
armed, as are the ultimate branchlets even of old trees. The leaves are 
unlike any of the Indian or Burmese gatherings either of Bonibax 
malabaricum or of Bonibax insigne. 

2. A tree with unarmed trunk and branches, leaflets about 6, entire, 
obovate, acuminate 9-11 inches long, 2|-3 inches wide, gradually 
tapering into petiolules |-f inches long, stamens numerous. This was 
obtained only in Little Coco, it occurs in South Andaman also, for there 
are specimens at Calcutta, obtained by Mr. Kurz at Port Monat on the 
west coast. It does not at all resemble as to leaves of the other form nor 
does it resemble the leaves of Wallich’s type specimen of B. insigne. 
But its leaves precisely resemble those of Wall. Gat. 1840/4 (from Taong 
Doung, Burma), which was issued as B. malabaricum VAR. albiflorum, 
Wall. The number of stamens makes it impossible to refer the Anda¬ 
man plant at least to B. malabaricum. 

In South Andaman both forms have the leaves glaucous beneath ; in 
the Cocos neither form has ; so that this character perhaps cannot be held 
as valid. Mr. Kurz did not consider the two Andamans forms separable 
from each other, and in one place he referred them to B. malabaricum^ 
but afterwards, on account of the staminal character, united them to 
B. insigne. He has, however, left a manuscript name “B. heterophyllumfl 
which proves both that he had noted the existence of the two kinds of 
foliage and that he could not separate the plants exhibiting them from 
each other. 

It should be noted that the convicts and others at Port Blair dis¬ 
tinguish two kinds of “Semul” or “ Cotton-tree.” The distinction 
does not, however, apply to the two forms referred to above, but to these 
two taken together and to the following species. 

Both islands. 

South Andaman. Burma ? 

19. ErIODBNDRON ANFRACTUOSUM DC. 

Both islands, common. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Africa, and America. 

STERCULIACE^. 

20. Steuculia villosa Roxb. 

Great Coco; Little Coco. 

India. 

114 


305 


21. SfERCDLiA RUBiaiNOSA Vent. var . glabbescens King. 

Great Coco. 

A variety restricted to the Andamans and Nicobars. 

22. Sterculia parviflora Roxb. 

Little Coco ; only leaf specimens which, however, agree with some 
from Penang. 

23. Sterculia alata Roxb. 

Both islands, frequent. 

India, Burma, Malaya. . 

24. Sterculia colorata Roxb. 

Great Coco. 

India, Burma, Malay Archipelago. 

25. Sterculia campanulata Wall. 

Little Coco. 

Burma, Andamans, Java. 

26. Heritiera littoralis Dryand. 

Great Coco ; Little Coco ; common in the creeks. 

Littoral species on tropical coasts of eastern hemisphere. 

27. Buettneria andamanensis Kurz. 

Little Coco ; common. 

Andamans, Tenasserim. 

TILIACE^. 

28. Berrya Ammonilla Roxb. 

Little Coco, frequent. 

India, Ceylon, Burma, Andamans. 

29. GrEWIA L^ffiVIGATA Vahl. 

In all the islands, common. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Australia, Africa. 

30. Grewia calophylla Kurz. 

Little Coco, common. 

Andamans. 

31. Grewia Microcos Linn. 

Great Coco, infrequent. 

India, Burma, China, Malaya. 

Disciflor.®. 

RUTACE^. 

32. Glycosmis pentaphylla Corr. 

In all the Islands; both the arboreous and the shrubby form ex¬ 
tremely common. 

Throughout India, Indo-China, and Malaya. 


115 


S06 


BURSERAOE^. 

33. Garuga pinnata Roxb. 

Great Coco; common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

34. Canarium euphyllum Kurz. 

Great Coco ; very common. 

Andamans. 

MELIACE^. 

35. Aglaia andamanica Hiern. 

Great Coco, Little Coco ; common. Flowers sweet-smelling. 
Andamans. 

36. Amoora Rohituka W. & A. 

Great Coco ; common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

37. Carapa moltjccensis Lamk. 

Great Coco; rather uncommon. The form with obtuse leaves (G. 
obovata Bl.) only occasional in the creeks, but very fiequent germinating 
along the beaches of all the islands. The form with ovate cordate 
acuminate leaves in two or three places on rochy parts of the eastern 
coast. Little Coco ; in one place only (form = O', obovata Bl.) 

38. Chickrassia tabularis A. Juss. ? 

Great Coco; common. In leaf only, but evidently identical with the 
tree identified with this species by Mr. Kurz in Beg. Veg. Andam., p. 33. 

OLACINE.^. 

39. Cansjera Rheedii Gmel. 

Great Coco; a common climber. 

India, Burma, Malaya, N. Australia, S. China. 

40. Phlebocaltmna Lobbiana Mast. 

Little Coco. 

Tenasserim and Martaban. 

41. Sarcos'I’IGma Wallichii Baill. (S. edule Kurz.) 

Great Coco ; rather common. 

Andamans. Mr. Kurz has in the Calcutta herbarium suggested 
the reduction of his own species to S Wallichii Baill., a plant from the 
Salween valley, nor is there any character by which the two can be 
distinguished. 

CELASTRINE^. 

42. Glyptopetalum calocarpum Prain, Jour. As. Soc. Beng., lx, 2, 209 
— Euonymus calocarpus Kurz. 

116 


307 


Common in all the islands, also reported from Narcondam (leaf 
specimens only, and the locality perhaps a mistake—the writer could not 
find tlie shrub in Narcondara). Veiy neaidy related to G. zeijlanicum 
I'bwaites, from Ceylon and S. India, but easily distinguished by its 
shorter racemes, smaller flowers and hardly foveolate petals. The fruits 
and seeds are exactly as in Q. zeylanicum. In this the leaves ax-e al¬ 
ways entire. 

43. Salacia prinoides DO. 

Great Coco ; in creeks, an extensive climbing shrub, associated with 
Avicennia officinalis. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Philippines. 

44. SiPHONODON CELASTRINEUS Griff, 

Great Coco, occasional; Little Coco, very common. A considerable 

tree, 

Pegu, Penang., Java. 


RHAMNE^. 

46. Ventilago calyculata Tulasne. 

Gi’eat Coco. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

46. ZizTPHUS CEnoplia Mill. 

Great Coco, not at all common. 

India, Burma, Malaya, IST. Australia. 

47. COLUBRINA ASIATICA Brogn. 

Little Coco ; coast at north end of island. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya ; N. Australia j S. W. Africa. 

AMPELID^. 

48. VlTIS PENTAGONA Roxb. 

Table Island and Great Coco ; common. 

Chittagong, Arracan, Andamans. 

49. VlTIS CARNOSA Wall. 

Common on all the islands. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

50. ViTiS PEDATA Wall. 

Great Coco, and Little Coco; very common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

51. Leea sambucina Willd. 

Interior of all the islands, common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

52. Leea hirta Roxb. 

Great Coco. 

India, Burma, Malaya, 


117 


308 


SAPINDACE^. 

63. Eeioglossum edule Blume. 

Both islands, on ridges, common. 

India, Burma, Malaya, North Australia. 

54. Allophtlus Cobbs Blume. 

Great and Little Coco ; not uncommon along the western sea-face. 
India, Burma, Malaya. 

65. Sapindus Danura Voigt. 

Great Coco. 

Assam, Burma. 

56. POMETIA TOMENTOSA Kurz. 

Great Coco, common. 

Indo-China, Andamans, Nicobars, Malaya, Ceylon. 

67. DoDON.ffiA viscosA Linn. 

Great Coco ; a small tree very common at the north-east corner of 
the island. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

ANACARDIACE^. 

68. Odina Wodier Roxb. 

Great Coco. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Tenasserim. 

59. Parishia insignis Hook. f. 

Great Coco ; in leaf only. 

Tenasserim, Andamans. 

60. Semecarpus subpandtjriformis Wall. 

Great Coco only, but there rather frequent near the eastern coast. 
Chittagong ; Gamble. Arracan, in the Kolodyne valley, Kurz ; on 
Boronga Island, Kurz. Originally this was known only from specimens 
grown in the Calcutta garden (introduced from Chittagong) distributed 
by Dr. Wallich (Caif. n. 987). 

61. Semecarpus heterophtllus Blume. 

Great Coco, interior, rather frequent; Little Coco, interior, extreme¬ 
ly common. 

Pegu, Tenasserim ; Andamans, Nicobars ; Sumatra, Java. 

62. Spondias mangieera Willd. 

^ Great Coco and Little Coco, very common in the interior of both 
islands; the fruits are yellow and extremely sour, but much eaten by 
the wild pigs (Sus andamanensis) which abound. 

Tropical Asia; Mr. Kurz found this in S. Andaman also. 

63. Dracontomelum mangiferum Blume. 

Great and Little Coco, frequent: in leaf onlv 
118 


309 


Andamans, Nicobars; Malay Peninsula and Archipelago; Philippines 
and Fiji Islands. 


MORINGE^. 

64, Moringa ptbrtgosperma Gaertn. 

Great Coco ; a few trees have been planted at the north-east corner 
of the island by the people of the attempted settlement; a large namber 
of seedlings have already appeared though the introduction has been so 
recent. 

India; indig. in North-West Himalaya, elsewhere cultivated in 
tropical countries. 


Caltciflor^!. 

CONNARACE^. 

65. CONNARUS GIBBOSUS Wall. 

Great Coco. 

Tenasserim, Malaya ; Andamans. 

LEGUMINOS^. 

66. Crotalaria sericea Retz. 

Table Island ; very common throughout the clearing; apparently 
introduced, as it was not found in Great Coco or Little Coco. This 
species does not seem to occur in the Andaman group proper ; at Port 
Blair in S, Andaman Grotalaria retusa is the species that has been in¬ 
troduced and occupies similar localities. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

67. Desmodium gmbellatum DC, 

In all the islands, very common on the coast. 

India, Burma, Andamans, Malaya, Philippines, Polynesia, Mascarene 
islands. 

68. Desmodium triquetrum DC. 

Table Island and Great Coco ; very common on bare rocky slopes on 
west coast, occasional on higher ground in the interior; Little Coco 
occasional in the interior. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans ; Philippines; S. China. 

69. DE;,M0DIUM LAXIPLORUM DC, 

In all the islands, rather frequent on the higher ground in the 
interior. 

India, Burma ; Andamans, Nicobars ; Malaya. 

70. Desmodium poltcarpum DC. 

Table Island and Great Ccco ; very abundant on all the rocky slopes 

119 


310 


on the westera coasts* This species has been referred to {Jour. As. Soc., 
Beng., lix, pt. 2, p. 251) as perhaps introduced into the Andamans, be¬ 
cause Mr. Kurz did not meet with it in 1866 when he explored a part 
of the group. But from what the writer has been able to note since, he 
is convinced that the species is indigenous in the Andaman group. 

East Africa j Tropical Asia; Malaja, Philippines ; China, Japan; 
Polynesia. 

71. Desmodium teifloeum do. 

Table Island, in the lighthouse clearing on grassy slopes. There 
is a white- and a red-flowered variety and both are equally common. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

72. Altsicaepus vaginalis DO. 

Great Coco, in the small clearing at the north-east corner of the 
island, probably introduced. 

Tropical weed indigenous in eastern hemisphere; introduced in 
America. 

73. Phaseolus sp. 

Great Coco. Appearing as seedlings in the droppings of the half¬ 
wild cattle on a bare grassy hill-side in the south-west of the island, much 
frequented by these, were seen during the second visit to the island 
numerous examples of what appears to be a species of this genus. Each 
leaflet has in the centre a reniform white mark which ought to be dis¬ 
tinctive, yet the writer cannot recall a variety which exhibits this. The 
origin of the seeds could not be traced, no Phaseolus was observed in the 
abandoned clearing in 1889, and unfortunately it was impossible to re¬ 
examine that locality in 1890. 

74. Abeus peecatoeius Linn. 

Great Coco, common; Little Coco, very common. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

75. Abeus polchellus Wall. 

In all the islands, very common. 

Africa, India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans. 

76. Eettheina indica Lamk. 

In all the islands, in coast zone ; not nearly so common as it is on 
Diamond Island at the mouth of the Bassein river. 

India, Burma, Malaya; Andamans, Nicobars. 

77. Mucuna gigantea DO, 

Great and Little Coco ; one of the commonest climbers on flat land 
in the interior behind the mangrove swamps. 

India, Andamans ; Malaya ; Philippines ; Polynesia. 

78. Mucuna prueiens DC. 

Table Island, vei-y common, interior jungle on ridges. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

120 


311 


79. PuERARiA, Candollei Graham. 

Little Coco, common. 

Pegu, Tenasserim. 

80. PuERARiA phaseoloides Benth. 

Great Coco, common on the western coast. 

India, Burma, S. China, Malaya. 

81. Canavalia obtusifolia DC. (Dolichos lineatus Thunhg.) 

In all the islands, one of the commonest climbers along the sea-face 
here as on the Burmese, the Andamans, Nicobars and Malay coasts. 
Cosmopolitan on tropical shores. 

82. ViGNA lutea a. Gray. 

Little Coco, very common on coasts both east and west; Great Coco, 
rather rare. 

Martaban, Malaya; Andamans, Nicobars. 

Cosmopolitan in tropics, but absent from India. 

83. Ptbrocarpijs indicus Willd. 

Great Coco, infrequent. 

India, Bxirma, Andamans, Malaya; Philippines ; S. China. 

84. Deeris scanders Benth. 

Great and Little Coco ; very common. 

India, Burma, Andamans, Malaya ; S. China, N. Australia. 

85. Derris sintjata Benth. 

Great Coco, extremely common on the eastern coast. 

Pegu, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula; Andamans, Malay islands; 
Ceylon. 

86. Debris uliginosa Benth. 

Both islands, common, on rocky parts of the coast. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Africa, Australia, Polynesia. 

87. PONGAMIA GLABBA Vent. 

In all the islands, a common tree in the coast zone and especially 
along the sides of mangrove creeks ; never seen climbing. 

India, Burma, Andamans, Malaya; Polynesia; N. Australia; 
Seychelles. 

88. SOPHORA TOMENTOSA Linn. 

Great and Little Coco, west coast, but infrequent. 

Cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores. 

89. Mezoneuron enneaphtlbum W. & A. 

Great Coco, common on summits of interior ridges. 

Cachar, Chittagong; Pegu, Tenasserim, Ceylon, Malay Archipelago. 

90. CaiSALPiNiA Bonducella Flem. 

In all the islands, very common in the sea-face j ungle along the 
beaches. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 


121 


312 


91. Cj]salpinia Nuqa Ait. 

In all the islands; very common in the jungle on flat land behind 
beaches and mangrove-swamps. 

India, Ceylon; Burma; Malaya; Philippines; N. Australia; S. 
China ; Polynesia. 

92. Tamarindus indica Linn. 

Great Coco ; a single large tree on west side of mouth of creek 
opening into Pollok Bay. This tree grows in a place where it could 
hardly have been planted; if planted where it grows it can hardly be 
imagined for what object the position was selected and the tree is obvious¬ 
ly much older than the last attempt at settlement in the island. This bay 
is at certain seasons an anchorage for Burmese junks calling to obtain 
coco-nuts and the introduction of the tree is probably due to a tamar¬ 
ind fruit having been cast overbroad from one of thess junks and thrown 
up by the tide where the tree now grows. 

Throughout the tropics, cultivated; perhaps indigenous in Africa. 

93. Ctnombtea eamiflora Linn. 

In all the islands ; very common in flat, muddy lands behind man¬ 
grove swamps. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Andamans, Nicobars, Malaya ; Philipines; 
N. Australia. 

94. Entada scandens Benth. 

In all the islands, frequent; its seeds occur in all the shore-drifts 
and it was one of the species found germinating on a sandy spit (an in¬ 
cipient island) between Jerry Island and the south end of Great Coco. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

95. Adbnanthera payonina Benth. 

Table Island and Great Coco, common. 

India, Ceylon; Burma, Andamans, Malaya; Philippines; S. China. 

96. Acacia concinna DC. 

Great Coco, rather common. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya; S. China. 

97. Acacia pennata Willd. 

In all the islands, very common. 

Africa ; India, Ceylon ; Burma, Andamans, Malaya. 

98. Albizzia Lbbbek Benth. 

Great Coco. 

Africa; India, Ceylon; Burma, Tenasserim, Malaya : Andamans ; 
China; N. Australia. 

99. Albizzia peoceea Benth. 

In all the islands exceedingly common on the interior ridges ; stun¬ 
ted and weatherbeaten where it approaches the west coast. 

122 


313 


India, Burma, Malaya, Philippines, (not yet I’ecorded from south 
Andaman). 


RHIZOPHOREtE. 

100. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk, 

Great and Little Coco, frequent in mangrove swamps. 

Tropical shores of Africa, Asia, and N. Australia. 

101. Rhizophora conjugata Linn. 

Great Coco, common. 

Tropical shores of Asia, and Africa. 

102. Cbriops Candollbana Arn. 

Great Coco, common. 

Tropical shores of Eastern Hemisphere. 

103. Cbriops Roxburghiana Arn. 

Great Coco, not common. 

Tropical shores of Eastern Hemisphere. 

104. Bruguiera gtmnorhiza Lamk. 

In all the islands, common. This is the chief constituent of the 
mangrove jungle in the group ; it germinates very freely also along the 
sandy beaches though there it doubtless does not persist; it also ger- 
minates along the ridges of coral that are formed between the mainland 
and small outlying islets like Lascelles Island, Rat Island, Button, and 
others, and as the roots spread they help to collect the “ drift ” of the 
tides and shew how it is possible for the island to increase in size with¬ 
out postulating a general upheaval for the group. On bare rocky pro¬ 
montories on the west coast where long rocky ledges and reefs of loose 
boulders run many yards out to sea, numbers of seedlings also appear and 
though these spots are exposed to the full force of the south-west monsoon 
many of these resist the waves for at least several seasons; the only 
other constituent of the mangrove jungle that does this is Avicemiia, 
many specimens of which though dwarf and weatherbeaten are evidently 
of considerable age. Pemphis, which also greatly affects such positions 
is not partial to mangrove swamps proper at all and was never seen 
along the creeks. In the small lake on Little Coco tHe water of which 
was potable though not good almost all the constituents of a mangrove 
swamp were growing freely. 

Tropical shores of Eastern Hemisphere and Polynesia. 

COMBRETACE^. 

105. Teeminalia Catappa Linn. 

In all the islands ; one of the commonest trees on the shore and 

123 


314 


not infrequent in the interior on flat lands, but not met with ascending 
the ridges. There is apparently no such species as T. procera. 
Andamans, Malaya; planted elsewhere in the tropics. 

106. Teeminalia bialata Karz. 

Great Coco, frequent. 

Burma, Tenassei’im, Andamans. 

107. Lumnitzera eacbmosa Willd. 

Little Coco, very common among mangroves in the lagoon. 

Tropical shores of Eastern Hemisphere and Polynesia. 

108. Illigeea Contzadenia Meissn. 

Great Coco, a rather common climber. 

Tenasserim, Andamans. 

109. Gtrocarpus Jacquini Roxb. 

In all the islands, probably the commonest species in the group. 
Tropical sea-shores of the old world and Polynesia, 

MTRTACEH5. 

110. Baeringtonia speciosa Eorst. 

In all the islands, very common. 

Ceylon; Andamans, Nicobars; Malaya ; Australia; Polynesia : on 
sea-shores. 

111. Baeringtonia racemosa Blume. 

In all the islands, very common. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya ; Andamans, Nicobars ; Polynesia : 
on sea-shores. 

MELASTOMACE.^. 

112. Mbmecylon bdule Roxb. 

Great Coco; east coast, on rocky promontory at south end of Ford 
Uay—only one tree seen, 

Andamans, Malaya, Philippines. Mr. Kurz has a specimen from 
Great Coco also, only in leaf, and has it from S. Andaman in flower. 

LYTHRACEAE. 

113. Pbmphis aciddla Forst. 

In all the islands ; very common, especially on the west coast on 
rocky or shingly promontories. 

Tropical shores of Eastern Hemisphere. 

114. Lagerstrcemia hypolbuca Kurz. 

Great Coco, common in the interior. 

Andamans. 

124 


315 


115. Lagerstr(emia sp. 

Little Coco ; one tree only seen. 

A tall straight tree, about 100 feet, leaves sessile, oblong-lanceolate 
8 in. long, 2|-2| in. wide, thinly coriaceous, fruit | in., calyx woody, 
lobes spreading. 

The leaves of this are unlike those of any Indian species ; the fruit 
is very like that of L. calyculata Kurz, from Martaban, but the leaves are 
very different, being larger, much thinner, and perfectly glabrous. 
This, when flowers are found, will almost certainly prove a distinct 
species. 


PASSIFLOREJE. 

116. Modecca cordifolia Blume (flde Masters). 

Great Coco, common. 

Andamans ; the specimens are exactly like the common Andaman 
coast Modecca and the flowers appear not to differ from those of M. cardio- 
phylla Mast. 

117. Carica Papaya Linn. 

Great Coco, introduced but perfectly naturalised and already ex¬ 
tending in an unbroken line among the coco-n.uts on the east coast, 
from the north-east corner to within 3 miles of the south end of the island ; 
one or two isolated specimens occur at the south-east corner evidently 
oi’iginating from fruits washed up by the sea. Half a mile from the 
south end on the west coast is another spot, well into the interior, where 
some trees occur—the result apparently of independent introduction as 
they occur near the remains of some huts used by coco-nut gatherers 
who visit the island at intervals. 

Cultivated in warm countries ; originally American. 

CUCHRBITACE^. 

118. Trichosanthes palmata Roxb. 

Little Coco ; near north end of island. 

India, Ceylon; Burma, Andamans; Malaya ; H. Australia ; China, 
Japan. 


FICOIDE^. 

119. Sesuvium Portulacastrum Linn. 

In all the islands ; common on sandy beaches on the east coast. 
All tropical and sub-tropical sea-shores. 


125 


316 


COROLLIFLOR^. 

RUBIACE^. 

120. Stephegyne divbrsipolia Hook. f. 

In all the islands, extremely common, 

Chittagong, Burma, Tenesserim ; Philippines, 

121. MussiENDA GALYGINA Wall. {M. macropIiylloB forma distinctior). 

In all the islands very common. The calyx-teeth in these examples 

are f in. long and j in. broad. 

Pegu, Tenasserim, Andamans. 

122. Webera Kuezii Hook. f. 

Little Coco ; common in interior. 

Andamans. 

123. Randia longiplora Lamk. 

Little Coco, common. 

Assam, Chittagong, Burma, Tenasserim, Malaya; Andamans, 
Hicobars. 

124. Diplospora singblaris Korth. 

In all the islands, extremely common. 

Assam, Burma, Tenasserim; Malaya. Not yet reported from other 
parts of the Andaman group. 

125. Guettarda spegiosa Linn. 

Great Coco, east coast; frequent. 

Cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores, 

126. IxOEA grandieolia Zoll. & Mor., var. Kurzeana Teys. & Binnend. 

In all the islands, common in the interior jungle ; a small straggling 

shrub. 

Nicobars. This is exactly like the type of Teysmann and Binnen- 
dyk’s I. Kurzeana. 

127. IxORA BRUNNESGENS Kurz. 

In all the islands; very common along the beaches. A fine tree, 
often 60-80 feet; extremely unlike the preceding. 

Andamans, Nicobars, 

128. IxORA GUNBIFOLIA Roxb. 

Little Coco ; infrequent. 

Assam, Burma, Tenasserim, 

129. Pavetta iNDicA Linn. 

In all the islands, very common. 

India ; Burma, Andamans ; Malaya; S. China ; N. Australia. 

130. Morinda gitrifolia Linn., var. bragteapa Roxb. 

In all the islands, exceedingly common along the coast. 

Laccadives ; Andamans ; Nicobars ; Sunderbuns ; Arracan. 

126 


317 


131. PSTCHOTRIA ADENOPHYLLA Wiffht. 

_ o • 

Very common in all the islands. 
Assam, Pegn, Tenasserim ; Andamans. 

132. P^DERIA FCETIDA Linn. 

Very common in all the islands. 

India, Burma, Malaja. 


COMPOSITE. 

133. Vernonia cinerea Less. 

Table Island, common in the clearing near the lighthouse; Great 
Coco, frequent in the small clearing at the north-east corner but also 
plentiful on bare rocks on the western sea-face of the island. Though 
probably an introduced plant in the two first situations, its appearance 
on the west coast, where it is extremely plentiful, indicates that it 
has also reached the island independently of human agency. 

Tropical Asia, Africa and America. 

134. Vernonia diyergens Benth. 

Great Coco ; plentiful on rocky promontory at north end of island. 
India, Burma, Tenasserim. 

135. Adenostemma yiscosum Porst. 

Great Coco, on the western coast and at the north end of the island. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

136. Ageratum conyzoides Linn. 

Table Island, common in the clearing near the lighthouse. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics ; originally American. 

137. Blumea yirens DO. 

Great Coco, profuse on rocks on western sea-face ; in one sheltered 
coYe the stems were OYer 8 feet high. 

India, Burma, Tenasserim (Mei-gui, Griffith'). 

138. PLUCilEA INOICA Less. 

Great Coco, common on the coast. 

India, Burma, Malaya, China ; sea-shores. 

139. Wbdelia scandens 0. B. Clarke. 

In all the islands, common in the sea-fence jungle, a rather brittle 
woody climber with stems 30—50 feet long. 

Tropical sea-shores of India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans and 
Nicobars. 


GOODENOVIE^. 

140. ScjJYOLA Kcenigii Vahl. 

In all the islands, Yery common in the coast zone. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Australia, Polynesia ; on sea-coasts. 

127 


318 


MYRSINE^. 

141. Ardisia HUMJLfS Yalil. 

In all the islands, common in the beach foi’est, 

India, China, Malaya. 

142. udilGiCERAS MAjus Caertn. 

Great Coco; fruits seen in the sea-diufts on the coast; doubt¬ 
less the sjDecies occurs frequently in the mangrove swamps, though no 
individual tree was met with. 

Cosmopolitan on tropical sea-coasts. 

SAPOTACE^. 

143. Mimusops littoralis Kurz, 

In all the islands ; next to Gyrocarpus Jarquini, this (the Andaman 
Bullet-wood) is the commonest tree in the group. 

In Jerry Island, off the south end of Great Coco, and for about two 
miles along the coast at the south end of Great Coco, nearly every tree 
that has attained a height of 80 feet presents from the sea the ap¬ 
pearance of being dead. Closer inspection, however, shews that in many 
(perhaps most) cases only the whole of the main branches are dead, 
while about their bases or along the main trunk numerous close bunches 
of small branches have appeared, the leaves of which keep the trees 
still alive. The same thing is apparent at the south-west corner of 
Little Coco but is less striking because less extensive. 

Andamans, Nicobara. 

EBENACE^. 

144. Diosptros Ktjrzii Hiern. 

Little Coco ; Great Coco, rare. 

Andamans, Nicobars. 


APOCYNEJU. 

145. Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. 

Great Coco, common. 

India, Burma, Tenasserim, Java ; not previously reported from the 
Andamans. 

146. Cerbera Odollam, Gaertn. 

Great Coco, rare ; in mangrove swamps. 

India, Malaya, Andamans ; China; Australia, Polynesia. 

147. OCHROSIA BORBONICA Gmel. 

Little Coco, common ; in beach forests. 

Andamans, Maiaya, Seychelles, Mascarene Islands 
128 


319 


148. TABERN.ffiMONTANA CRISPA Roxb. 

In all the islands, very common along the west coast. 

Andamans Nicobars, Diamond Island (off Arracan coast). 

149. Strophanthus Wallichii A. DO. 

Great Coco ; a large climber, in leaf only. 

India, Assam, Chittagong. 

150. Anodendron panicdlatum a. DC. 

In all the islands. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Philippines. 

151. Chonemorpha macrophtlla G. Don. 

Little Coco, common. 

India, Andamans, Malaya. 

ASCLEPIADE^. 

152. Sarcolobus globosus Wall. 

Great Coco and Little Coco ; common in mangrove swamps. 
Sunderbuns, Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula; Nicobars. 

153. Hoya parasitica Wall. 

Great Coco. 

Assam, Khasia, Chittagong, Tenasserim, Malaya; Andamans. 

1 54. Hoya diversieolia Blume. 

In all the islands ; extremely common. 

Burma, Malaya. 

165. Dischidia nummularia R. Br. 

Little Coco ; not common. 

Cachar, Chittagong, Tenasserim, Malaya, Andamans; Australia. 
GENTIANACE^. 

156. Limnanthemum indicum Thwaites, 

Great Coco ; abundant in the small lake at the north-east corner of 
the island ; not in the lake on Little Coco and not previously reported from 
the Andamans. The lake is adjacent to the small clearing and the 
species may possibly be an introduced one in this locality. 

Afghanistan; India, Burma, Malaya; Australia, Fiji; Mascarene 
islands. 

BORAGINE^. 

157. COBDIA SUBCORDATA Lamk. 

Great Coco, a rather common tree in the beach-forests on the east 
coast. 

Andamans, Malaya; Australia; Sandwich Islands. 


129 


320 


158. Tournefortia arqentea Linn. f. 

Great Coco, very rare; Little Coco, extremely common on the 
western coast and in the beach-forests, where it often reaches a height of 
35—40 feet with a trunk of sometimes a foot diameter. 

Ceylon ; Malaya, Andamans, Nicobars ; Australia; Mauritius. 

CONVOLVULACE^. 

159. Ertcibb paniculata Roxb. 

Great Coco, very common in interior. 

India, Burma, Tenasserim; Malaya; Andamans, Nicobars; Aus¬ 
tralia. 

160. ArGTREIA TILI.EFOLIA Wight. 

Great Coco; common on the coasts. 

India ; Andamans, Malaya ; Philippines; near the sea. 

161. Argyreia Hookeri Clarke. 

In all the islands, common. 

Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Martaban. 

162. Argyreia lanceolata Choisy. 

Great Coco : exactly^ITaZh Cat. 1395. 

Tenasserim, Andamans. 

163. Lbttsomia pegueesis Clarke. 

Little Coco. 

Pegu, Tenasserim, Andamans. 

164. Ipomjia geandiflora Lamk. 

In all the islands, very abundant on the coasts. 

East Africa; India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans; Australia, Poly¬ 
nesia ; introduced in America. 

165. Ipomjia coccinea Linn. 

Table Island, rampant in the jungle near the lighthouse clearing; 
escape from the light-keeper’s garden. 

Native of America; cult., and a frequent escape, in tropical Asia. 

166. Ipom^ea Batatas Lamk. 

Table Island, cultivated in the lighthouse garden. 

Native of America ; cult., in the tropics generally. 

167. Ipom^a digitata Linn. 

Great Coco, on the west coast, occasional. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

168. Ipomjia dbntigulata Choisy. 

Great Coco, very plentiful at north end of island, but almost al¬ 
together restricted to the coral-shingle ; at south end of island and on 
Little Coco, exceedingly uncommon. 

130 


321 


Seyclielles; Ceylon ; Malaya, Andamans and Nicobars; Australia, 
Polynesia. 

169. Ipomj:a Turpethum R. Br. 

Both islands, not uncommon. 

India, Burma; Malaya; Australia, Polynesia; Mauritius, Seychelles. 

170. Ipomjia BiLOBA Forsk. 

In all the islands, very common ; affects principally the sandy 
beaches; in Jerry Island, however, grows on the shingle and occurs under 
rather dense jungle, from side to side of that island, at its north end. 
Cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores. 

171. Convolvulus parviplorus Vahl. 

In all the islands; very common in the jungle along the western 
sea-face. 

Africa ; India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans; Australia. 

172. POEANA SPECTABILIS Kurz. 

Great Coco. 

Tenasserim, Andamans. 

SOLANACE^. 

173. SoLANUM Melongbna Linn. 

Table Island, cultivated in the light-house garden ; Great Coco, 
plentiful and quite naturalised all over the clearing at the north-aast 
corner of the island ; remains of the garden. 

Cult, in all warm countries. 

174. Phtsalis minima Linn. 

Great Coco ; abundant on rocky parts of the coast just above limits 
reached by spray during storms, on east, north and west coasts; Little 
Coco, on rocks in similar situations at north end of island. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

175. Capsicum minimum Roxb. 

Table Island, in clearing, occasional, escape from the light-keeper’s 
garden; Great Coco, throughout the clearing very abundant; unlike 
Solarium Melongena this is not confined to the clearing but is extending 
into the jungle much as Garica Papaya is. 

India and Malaya; cultivated and frequent as an escape. 

SCROPHULARINE^. 

176. ScOPAEIA DULCIS Linn. 

Table Island and Great Coco; abundant in the clearings on both 
islands; introduced. 

An American weed, now cosmopolitan in the ti’opics. 


131 


322 


BIGNONIACE^. 

177. Oroxtldm indicum Vent. 

Little Coco, very plentiful at north-east corner of the island ; Great 
Coco, rare. 

India, Ceylon ; Indo-China, Andamans ; Malaya. 

178. Heterophragma adenophyllum Seem. 

In all the islands, very common. 

Assam and Eastern Bengal, Burma, Tenasserim ; Andamans. 

ACANTHACE^. 

179. Thunbergia laurifolia Lindl. 

In all the islands, very common. 

Arracan, Tenasserim, Malaya ; Andamans. 

180. Hygrophila quadrivalvis T. And. 

Great Coco, abundant in the wet ground at the margin of the 
small lake and forming a continuous ring outside the belt of Polygonum 
growing at the water’s edge. 

India ; Andamans, Burma, Malaya. 

181. Strobilanthes phyllostachyus Kurz. 

Great and Little Coco, a gregarious species common on most 
of the rocky promontories on the east coast of both islands. 

Pegu, Tenasserim. 

182. Eranthemum album Nees. 

Great Coco ; common in the beach-forests. 

Chittagong, Burma; Malaya ; Andamans, Nicobars. 

183. Eranthemum cinnabarinum Wall., var. succisifolia Clarke (E, 

SUCCIFOLIUM Kurz.). 

Great and Little Coco; common in the beach-forest. 

Nicobars. 

These two species are recorded because in the large suite of speci¬ 
mens collected, some examples agree exactly with Andamans specimens 
named E. album by Dr. T. Anderson, and others agree exactly with the 
original specimens of Mr. Kurz’s E. succifolium. But I do not think 
that there are really two species present. The plants are referred by 
Anderson to E. album, but are considered by Clarke a white-flowered 
fern of E. cinnabarinum, and are held by Kurz to be two distinct species. 
The original specimens of Kurz’s Eranthemum album, T. And. ? (314 of 
Nicobars list) I cannot, however, distinguish from those of E. succifolium 
(313 of that list), 

184. Rungia parviflora Nees, var. pectinata Clarke. 

Table Island ; in the light-house clearing. 

India, Burma, Andamans ; a weed, introduced. 

132 


323 


185. Peristeophb acuminata Nees. 

Great Coco, very common on the east coast. 

Tenasserim, Malaya; Andamans. 

VERBENACE^. 

186. Lippia nodiploea Rich. 

Little Coco, in swampy ground at west side of island, plentiful. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

187. Peemna integeipolia Linn. 

In all the islands, very common on the coast. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya ; Andamans, Nicohars ; on sea coasts. 

188. Peemna sp. 

Great Coco; a climber common on the western sea-face, also ob¬ 
tained on Rutland Island. 

In fruit only ; almost certainly P. obtusifolia. 

South Andaman, Malayan Archipelago, Australia. 

189. ViTEX Hegundo Linn. 

Great Coco ; east coast, very rare ; Little Coco; in salt marshes, 
extremely common. 

Afghanistan, Tropical Asia, Philippines. 

190. VlTEX PUBESCENS Vahl. 

Table Island ; common on north coast. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

191. VlTEX WiMBEELBTI Kurz. 

Little Coco, not common. 

Andamans. 

192. Cleeodendeon inbeme Gaertn. 

In all the islands, extremely common on the coasts. 

India, Burma, Tenasserim, Andamans and Ilicobars. 

193. Avicennia oppicinalis Linn. 

Common in one mangrove swamp near south end of Great Coco; 
elsewhere rare. 

Indian, Malayan, and Polynesian sea-coasts. 

LABIATE. 

194. Anisomeles ovata R. Br. 

Great Coco; abundant in beach-forest at north end of island. This 
does not occur in the small clearing, but is very abundant in the jungle 
near it. It may have been introduced by man but is moi’e probably 
indigenous ; it occupies much the same situations and is even more plenti¬ 
ful in Diamond Island. Hot previously reported from the Andamans. 
India, Burma, Malaya, China, Philippines. 


133 


324 


Incompletjs. 

NYCTAGINE^. 

195. Bobrhaavia repens Linn. 

In all the islands, common on every rocky promontory and on all 
the isolated rocks on the reefs not covered by the tides. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

196. PiSONIA ACULEATA Linn. 

In all the islands, one of the commonest climbers in the beach-forests. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

197. PiSONIA BXCELSA Blume. 

In all the islands, common in the beach-forests. 

Andamans, Malaya. 

AMARANTACE^. 

198. Celosia cristata Linn. 

Table Island, an escape in the light-house clearing. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

199. Achtranthes aspera Linn. var. ttpica. 

Table Island and Great Coco, common in the clearings, introduced. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 
var. PORPHTRISTACHTA Hook. f. 

Little Coco, very abundant in the beach-forests; stems 10-15 feet 
long, climbing over the sea-face jungle. A plant in habit remarkably 
unlike the preceding. 

South-Eastern Asia. 

200. Gomphrena globosa, Linn. 

Table Island, an escape, but very plentiful and extending into the 
jungle. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics ; probably originally American. 
POLYGON ACE Ail. 

201. Polygonum barbatum Linn. 

Great Coco ; this plant fringes the small lake at the north-east cor¬ 
ner of the island, growing partly in and partly out of the water, just 
within it is a floating belt of Panicum Myurus, while outside is a ring 
of Hygrophila quadrivalvis. None occurs in the lake on Little Coco. 
Africa ; India, Ceylon ; Bui-ma, Malaya. 

ARISTOLOCHIACE^. 

202. Bragantia tomentosa Blume. 

Little Coco ; abundant on the interior ridges. 

Tenasserim, Andamans; Java. 

134 


825 


203. Aristolochia tagala Cham. & Schlecht. 

Both islands, frequent. 

India, Burma, Malaya ; Nicobars. 

PIPERACB^. 

204. Piper caninum Blume. 

Great Coco. 

Tenasserim, South Andaman, Malaya. 

MYRISTICE^. 

205. Mtristica Irta Gaertn. 

Great Coco; frequent in interior towards eastern side. 

Ceylon, Andamans, Tenasseium, Malaya. 

206. Mtristica glauca Blume. 

Great Coco. 

Burma, Andamans, Malaya. 

LAURINE^. 

207. Dehaasia Kurzii King. 

Little Coco. 

Tenasserim, Andamans. 

208. Hernandia pbltata Meissn. 

In all the islands, on the eastern coasts. 

East Africa, Madagascar; Laccadives, Ceylon; Andamans, Kico- 
bars; Mergui, Malaya, Archipelago ; North Australia; Polynesia. 

209. Cassttha FILIFORMIS Linn. 

Great Coco, occasional; Little Coco, extremely plentiful on all the 
coasts. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

LORANTHACEAS. 

210. Loranthus longiflorus Desrouss. 

Great and Little Coco. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya ; Andamans. 

SANTALACE.^. 

211. Champerbia Griffithiana Planch. 

Both islands; common on the coasts. 

Tenasserim, Malaya ; Andamans, Nicobars. 


135 


326 


EUPHORBIACE^. 

212. Euphoebta Atoto Forst. 

In all the islands, very common on the sandy beaches. 

India, Ceylon; Andamans, Nicobars ; Malaya ; Australia ; China ; 
Polynesia. 

213. Euphorbia pilulifera Linn. 

Table Island; in light-house clearing, still rare. 

Cosmopolitan tropical and subtropical weed. 

214. Bridelia Kurzii Hook. f. 

In all the islands, common on the western sea-face. 

Nicobars. 

215. Bridelia tomentosa Blume. 

Great Coco, common. 

India; Burma ; Andamans, Malaya ; China; Philippines ; Hortb 
Australia. 

216. Phtllanthus columnaris, Muell.-Arg. 

Table Island, common. 

Pegu, Tenasserim. 

217. Flueggia microcarpa Blume. 

Great Coco. 

Africa; India, Ceylon; Assam, Burma, Malaya; Australia ; China. 

218. Ctclostemon assamicus Hook. f. 

In all the islands, a very common tree, gregarious where it occurs. 
Sikkim, Assam. 

219. Aporosa villosula Kurz. 

Great Coco. 

Pegu, Tenasserim, Andamans. 

220. Crotofi sublyratus Kurz. 

In all the islands, common in the beach-forests. 

Andamans and (perhaps) Tenasserim. 

221. Blachia andamanica Hook. f. 

Great Coco, coasts, very common; Little Coco, frequent in beach- 
forests. 

Andamans. 

222. Claoxtlon longifolidm Muell.-Arg. 

Great Coco. 

Malaya. 

223. Mallotus acuminates Muell.-Arg. (=31. Helferianus Kurz.). 

Great Coco, common. 

Tenasserim ; Andamans ; Malaya. 

224. Mallotus andamanicus Hook. f. 

Great and Little Coco; common, and, where it occurs, gregarious. 
Andamans. 

136 


327 


225. Macaranga Tanarius Muell.-Arg. 

Great Coco and Little Coco ; common in the beach-forests. 

Arracan (Diamond Island); Andamans; Malaya. 

226. Cnesmone javanica Blume. 

Great Coco ; plentiful on rocky promontories at north end of island. 
Bengal, Assam, Burma, Malaya. 

URTICACE^. 

227. Phtllochlamys spinosa Bureau. 

Little Coco, common. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya; Andamans. 

228. Plecospermum andamanicdm King. 

Little Coco. 

Tenasserim, Andamans. 

229. Ficus Benjamina Linn. 

Great Coco ; not in fruit, therefore the particular variety cannot be 
determined. 

India, Assam, Burma, Andamans, Malaya. 

230. Ficus Rumphii Vahl. 

Little Coco, on the east coast; this species is here very rare. In 
Diamond Island, Arracan, this is one of the commonest trees on the 
coast. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans. 

231. Ficus retusa Linn. var. nitida Thunbg. (sp). F. comosa Curtis, 
Bot. Mag., t. 8305 [1834]. 

In all the islands, very common. The fruits of this species, as 
Mr. Kendall, i. m., pointed out to me, is one of the favourite foods of 
a large pigeon, Oarphopaga bicolor, which visits the group in enormous 
numbers during the cold weather. 

India; Burma; Andamans, Malaya; China; Australia; New 
Caledonia. 

232. Ficus brevicuspis Miq. 

In all the islands, common. The fruits are borne both on young 
branches in leaf axils, and on old wood in bunches. 

Andamans, Malaya. 

233. Ficus callosa Willd. 

Great Coco. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

234. Ficus hispiua Linn. f. 

Great Coco, common. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya. 
var. d.$:monum Koenig (sp.). 


137 


323 


Little Coco. 

Distribution of type. 

235. Ficus Grisea Wall. Cat. 4544. 

Great Coco. Fruits of this a favourite food of the Green Parrots. 
Burma. (Salween valley). 

236. Antiaeis toxicaria Leschen. 

Great Coco. 

India, Ceylon ; Burma, Tenasserim, Malaya. 

237. Artocarpus Gomeziana Wall. 

Great Coco and Little Coco, very common. 

Tenasserim, Malaya, Andamans. 

GtMNO SPERM.®. 

CYCADACE^. 


238. Ctcas Rumphii Miq. 

In all the islands, very common in beach-forests, sometimes attains a 
height of 50 feet, and a girth of over 5 feet. 

Tenasserim, Andamans, Nicobars ; Malaya ; North Australia, New 
Guinea. 


Monocottledones. 

ORCHIDACE^. 

239. Dendrobium secundum Wall. 

In all the islands, common. The only very common orchid on forest 
trees ; specimen brought and flowered at Calcutta. 

Martaban, Tenasserim; Penang, Sumatra, Java, Cochin China. 

240. Calanthe veratrifolia R. Br. 

Great Coco, not uncommon on the interior ridges. The same 
species was also found, a few days later, on Rutland Island at the opposite 
end of the Andaman group. 

India, Andamans, Malaya. 

241. Dorites Wightii Benth. mr.-? 

Great Coco, frequent on trees in the low, flat swampy land near the 
coast; specimens were brought and flowered at Calcutta. The foliage 
as well as the shape and markings of the flowers quite agree with thole 
of the typical plant, but in the Coco Island specimens the flowers are 
distinctly larger and the ground colour is violet instead of yellow. 

242. Abrides multiplorum Roxb. 

Great Coco, occasional near the sea. 

India, Burma, Andamans, Malaya. 

138 


243. Pholidota imbkicata Lindl. 
Great Coco, occasional. 
India, Burma, Malaya. 


329 


SCITAMINE^. 

244. CosTTJS sPECiosus Linn. 

Great Coco, frequent. 

India, Himalaya, Indo-Cliina, China, Malaya. 

245. ZiNGIBEB sp. 

Great Coco, common. Hear Z. corollinum Hance ; probably a new 
species (Baker in sched.). In fruit only on the occasion of these visits; 
the rhizomes brought to Calcutta have not yet flowered. 

246. Musa sapientum Linn. 

The Plantain is cultivated in the light-house garden ; it has al¬ 
ready disappeared, probably owing to the presence of cattle, from the 
site of the garden on Great Coco. 

AMARTLLIDACE^. 

247. Crinum astaticum Linn. 

In all the islands, very common in the coast zone. 

Andamans, Nicobars, Malaya. 

TACCACE^. 

248. Tacca pinnatieida Forst. 

In all the islands, common in the coast zone. Some of these were 
huge specimens and the tubers brought to Calcutta produced leaves and 
flowers in no way inferior to those in their native habitat. The follow¬ 
ing measurements are from an average specimen—the tallest grown had 
a peduncle 116 inches high. 

Leaf-stalk 40 inches, lamina 3-fid, each lobe 36 in. long, the lateral 
lobes 2-fid from the 8th inch ; the central lobe and each segment of the 
lateral lobes 36 in. across ; peduncle 80 inches ; leafy bracts 3 in. long, 
2 in. across; filiform bracts 16 in. long, their basal sixth green, the re¬ 
mainder pale purple; perianth segments f in. long, | in. across, pale green 
with purplish edges. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans, 

DIOSCOREACE^. 

249. Dioscorea glabra Roxb. 

In all the islands, common. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans. 


139 


330 


250. Dioscorea pentaphtlla Linn, 
In all the islands, common. 
India, Ceylon, Burma. 


LILTACE^. 

251. Smilax macrophylla Roxb. 

In all the islands, common. 

Eastern Himalaya, Assam, Arracan, Pegu. 

252. Asparagus racemosus Roxh. 

Great Coco; in low-lying lands behind the mangrove-swamps at 
north end of island. 

India, Burma, Andamans, Java. 

253. Drac^na angustifolia Roxb. 

Both islands; small tree in coast zone. 

India, Burma, Andamans, Malaya; H. Australia. 

254. Deac.®na spicata Roxb. 

In all the islands, frequent on interior ridges. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans, Nicobars. 

255. Gloriosa superba Linn. 

Great Coco ; east coast, frequent. 

Tropical Asia and Africa. 

COMMELYHE^. 

256. POLLTA zorzogonexsis Endl. 

Great Coco, rather common. 

India, Burma, Andamans, Narcondam, Malaya. 

257. COMMBLINA OBLTQUA HaSslc. 

Great Coco. Seeds smooth, but only two in number in both speci¬ 
mens collected. 

India, Burma, Malaya; not before reported from the Andamans. 

268. Aneilema ovatum Wall. 

Great Coco, Little Coco ; common. 

Pegu, Tenasserim, Andamans. 


FLAGELLARIE.®. 

259. Flagellaria indica Linn. 

In all the islands, very common in beach-forests. 

India, Indo-China, Andamans, Nicobars, Malaya ; Australia; Mauri- 

tius. 


140 


PALMED. 


33i 


260. Cartota sobolifera Wall. 

In all the islands, very common in beach-forests. 

Indo-China, Andamans, Malaya. 

261. CORYPHAELATA Roxb., Elor. Ind. 2, 176; Griff., Ind. Palm. 112, 
t. 220 D.—0. Gehanga Knrz, Jonr. As. Soc. Beng. 43, pt. 2, 206, nec 
Blume.—(7. macropoda Knrz, 1. c. 205, t. 15. 

Great Coco, rare; Little Coco, very common. 

This palm, which is very common in Little Coco and particularly so 
near the lake at the south-west corner of the island has leaf stalks 
up to 25 feet long and leaves up to 20 feet across and is clearly identical 
with Kurz’s 0. macropoda. But Kurz’s plant does not appear to be 
specifically distinct from 0. elata. Kurz has himself in his subsequent 
writings noted that his first impression that this is a stemless palm 
was erroneous, admitting that it has a stem at least 8—12 feet high. 
Moreover in Little Coco at least one example had reached a height of 60 
feet and was not yet in flower in 1890, while in 1889 and 1890 Dr. 
King and myself obtained both flowering and fruiting specimens of 
Kurz’s Andamanese Corypha near Port Blair; these prove the species 
to be Corypha elata. Kurz is, I believe, in error in identifying Rox¬ 
burgh’s G. elata with Blume’s G. Oebanga, the two trees—as grown in 
Hort. Calcutta—are very different in appearance; the leaves of G. 
Oebanga are much paler in colour and Blume’s figure of the in¬ 
florescence of G. Gebanga (Rumphia 2, tt. 97, 98 and 105) shows an 
open panicle that will not at all suit G. elata, which has a very dense in¬ 
florescence like a gigantic head of parsley. In any case Roxburgh’s 
name (1832) has four years’ priority and Kurz’s reduction is, therefore, 
on that ground alone, untenable. The writer is of opinion, and Dr. King 
agrees, that the examples of G. elata in Hort. Calcutta may have been 
originally introduced from the Andamans and that the species is only 
there indigenous. At all events it has not hitherto been found wild in 
any part of India or Burma. 

262. LmsTONA sp. 

Great Coco; occasional on inland ridges. This palm, the 3 or 4 
examples of which met with were stemless or had stems under two feet 
high, seems to be nearly related to L. Jenkinsiana Griff., Palm. Brit. 
Ind. 128, t. 226 A. B. and to L. speciosa Kurz, Jour. As. Soc. Beng., 
43, 2, 204, t. 13, 14, the differences between which species Mr. Kurz him¬ 
self admits are not great. The Coco species may not of course be a dwarf 
one, but if it is not it seems remarkable that no tall examples were met 
with. The leaves are remarkably like those of L. speciosa and Mr. 

141 


332 


Kurz’s description would suit them very well except that the transverse 
veins are, in the Great Coco plant, even moi’e prominent than in L. 
speciosa; the Ugula however is very different. 

Mr. Kurz does not describe the Ugula in Jj. speciosa ; it is, however, 
shewn (perfectly accurately) in t. 13, f. 5. as cordate and entire—just 
as it is in L. Jenkinsiana. In the species under review the Ugula is 
larger, ovate orbicular, and armed at the margin with small but hard, flat 
black blunt spines, a character exhibited by no flabellate-leaved palm of 
which specimens are preserved in Calcutta Herbarium. 

263. Calamus andamanicus Kurz. 

In all the islands, common. 

Andamans. 

264. Calamus tigrinus Kurz, 

In all the islands, common. 

Andamans, Tenasserim. 

265. Cocos NDCIFERA Linn. 

In all the islands, extremely abundant. Probably not truly in¬ 
digenous, though perhaps not intentionally introduced. It has long been 
known that this palm occurred on these islands; the name “ Cocos 
Islands,” applied to the group, is of older date than 1652, and it has 
often been the subject of remark that while this is so and while every 
island in the Nicobars, even uninhabited ones like Batti Malv, has 
Coco-nut trees, the species is altogether absent from the intervening 
Andaman islands. Kurz, in Forest Flora Brit. Burma, says the Coco¬ 
nut occurs on north-east Andaman also, but the writer is unable to 
ascertain on what authority, and the statement is contradicted by the 
oflhcers of the settlement at Port Blair who alone know the coasts 
of the group intimately. There are here and there individual trees on 
the Andaman coasts now; Dr. Alcock tells me there is one on South 
Sentinel; the writer saw one on Rutland Island; Captain Simpson, 
Assistant Port Officer, Madras, tells me he recollects being in a small 
bay in one of the islands of the Eastern Andaman Archipelago where 
there are some trees. But all these are quite recent introductions 
and are mainly due to the humanitarian efforts of the officers of the 
Andamans who plant them when they visit various places along the 
coasts; the instance quoted by Captain Simpson is, however, attributed 
to a wreck. No explanation based on the set of currents in these seas 
is sufficient to explain the peculiar distribution of the Palm, and the 
writer is inclined to believe that the presence of the species in the Coco 
Islands is due to the wreck of some Coco-laden craft on their coasts. 

Once established the species spreads with great rapidity. On Barren 
Island one tree was known in 1881; in 1891 thirteen were counted of 



333 


which seven were bearing. In Harcondam there were in 3891 Coco-nut 
trees, many of them bearing, in 3 separate bays on the N. W., N., and 
N. E. aspects of the island respectively. These may have been bi’ought 
from the Coco group by a strong Horth-East to South-West current that 
sets down on this island from the neighbourhood of that group, but I am 
inclined to think they owe their presence to an act of unrecorded piety 
on the part of some humane individual who has visited the island, 
for in the North Bay where the trees are most numerous there is, just 
behind the coco-nut zone, a large patch of Plantains which clearly must 
have been introduced intentionally. 

It should not be forgotten that at some remote period a colony may 
have been started in the Coco group and then abandoned. It is known 

that in recent times two such attempts have been made and that both 

have failed owing to the unhealthiness of the place. It may be that 
the Coco-nut was intentionally introduced on some similar occasion of 
which no record has been left. In any case, to speak of the coco-nut as 
‘‘ wild ” here, as Mr. Kurz does {Joitr. As. 8oc. Beng., xliii, Pt. 2, p. 200) 
IS apt to convey the erroneous impression that the species is here truly 
indigenous. 

The coco-nut cannot be said to be known in a truly wild state, 
though it occurs on many uninhabited islands, and its original home is by 
no means certain. 

The quality of these coco-nuts is little inferior to that of those 
cultivated at Port Blair and though distinctly inferior to those cultivated 
in the Nicobars they are much the same as those on Batti Malv where 
there are no inhabitants. 

America, Polynesia, Malaya, India. 

PANDANE^. 

266. Pandanus odoratissimus Linn. f. 

In all the islands, common on the coasts. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans, Nicobars. 

AROIDE^. 

267. Amorphophallus sp. (a£F. A. hulhifer). 

Great Coco, common; Little Coco, occasional. Only leaves and 
very advanced fruit obtained ; tubers brought to Calcutta have as yet 
only produced leaves, but these leaves are bulbiferous and indicate this 
as a species nearly related to, but apparently distinct from, both A 
hulhifer and A. tuherculiger. 

268. Alocasia fornicata Schott, 

Great Coco, common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans. 


143 


334 


269. SciNDAPSUS OFFICINALIS Schott, 

In all the islands, common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans. 

270. POTHOS SCANDENS Linn. 

In all the Islands, common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans. 

NAIADACE^. 

271. CtmODOCEA CILIATA Ehrb. ? 

On the reefs of all the islands ; extremely common and forming vast 
submarine meadows. This species is exceedingly common in the An¬ 
damans and has been met with in equal abundance at Rangachang near 
Port Blair (there associated with another species of apparently the same 
genus), at Rutland Island, at Little Andaman (there in company with 
Halophila ovalis), and at Car Nicobar. No flowering or fruiting speci¬ 
mens have yet been reported at Calcutta. This is the plant supposed 
by Kurz {Jour. As. Soc. Beng., xlv, Pt. 2, p. 154) to be a small form of 
Enhalus aceroides. 

272. Zanichellia palustris Linn. 

Little Coco, in the small lake along with Ohara fcatida. 

Cosmopolitan in salt-marshes. 

CYPERACE^. 

273. Ctperus poltstachyus Rottb. 

Great Coco; west coast, rather common on the bare grassy slopes. 
Cosmopolitan. 

274. Ctperus elegans Linn. 

Great Coco; frequent in wet patches in the dense interior jungle. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans; America. 

275. Ctperus dilctus Vahl. 

Great Coco ; occasional. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans. 

276. Ctperus pennatus Lamk. 

In all the islands, very common on the coast in rocky places. 
Sea-shores of the Indian Ocean. 

277. Kyllinga brevifolia Roxb. 

Great Coco, clearing at north-east corner; Table Island, clearing 
near light-house ; common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans. 

278. Eimbristtlis biphtlla Vahl. 

Table Island and Great Coco, in the clearings ; also on the rocky 
coasts. 

India, Burma, Malaya, Andamans ; Australia, Africa, America. 

144 


335 


279. Fimbristtlis ferruginea VaLl. 

Great Coco and Little Coco, on coral-sLingle. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

280. Fimbeistylis quinqubangularu; Kunth. 

Great Coco and Table Island, in marsby ground. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

281. Fimbristtlis miliacea Vahi. 

Great Coco, flat marsby ground near the small lake. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

282. SciRPus suBULATus Yahl. 

Little Coco, in the lake at tbe south-west corner of the island, 
abundant. 

Bengal (Salt lakes) ; Beluchistan, Panjab ; Africa, (Fgypt). 

GRAMINE^ 

283. Paspalum scrobicblatum Retz. 

Little Coco, abundant in the lake. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

284. Panicum ciliare Retz. 

Great Coco, near south end of island. 

India, Indo-China. 

285. Panicum colonum Linn. 

Table Island, light-house clearing; Great Coco in the clearing, also 
at south end of island in Coco-nut zone. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

286. Panicum Helopus Trin. 

Table Island, in the clearing. 

India, Indo-China. 

287. Panicum javanicum Poir. 

Great Coco, common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

288. Panicum Mturus Lamk. 

Great Coco; in matted manses floating in the small lake at north¬ 
east corner of island. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

289. Panicum montanum Roxb. 

Great Coco, with the next species, in deep jungle. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Andamans. 

290. Oplismenqs compositus Roem. & Schult. 

Great Coco, in dense jungle, occasional. 

Cosmopolitan or nearly so. 


145 


336 


29], Thuarea sarmertosa Pers. 

Great Coco, common as a turf under Coco-nut trees. 

Shores of Indian Ocean, 

292. IsCH^MUM CILIARE ReTZ. 

Great Coco, common on grassy slopes and under Coco-nut trees. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

293. IsCH^MUM MUTICUM Linn, 

Great Coco, occasional only; Little Coco, extremely abundant. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

294. Andropogon contortes Linn. 

Table Island and Great Coco; the common grass both in the clear¬ 
ings and on the naturally bare headlands of the western coast. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

295. Eleusine indica Gaertn. 

Table Island, frequent ; Great Coco, rare. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

296. Eleusine .egyptiaca Roxb. 

Table Island; in the light-house clearing, scarce. 

Cosmopolitan, or nearly so, in the tropics. 

297. Dendrocalamus strictus Nees, var .— ? 

Great Coco, on one hill, abundant; Table Island, plentiful. Flower¬ 
ing examples were obtained on Table Island which have been kindly 
examined by Mr. J. S. Gamble. There seems no doubt as to the species, 
the specimens do not however quite agree with typical examples. There 
is little doubt that this Bamboo is here indigenous and, from an account 
received from Mr. God win-Austen (formerly of Poi’t Blair), appears 
to occur on Saddle Peak in North Andaman also. It does not occur in 
South Andaman. 

India, Burmah. 


CRYPTOGAMS. 

Vasculares. 

EILICES. 

298. Davallia solida Sw. 

Great Coco, east coast, very common on Mimusops littoralis and other 
tall trees. 

Andamans, Malaya, Polynesia, Austi’alia. 

299, Adiantum lunulatum Burm. 

Great Coco, on interior ridges frequent; Table I,sland, common. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. * 

146 


337 


300. Ceratopteris thaitctroidbs Brogn. 

Great Coco, in wet places in the interior with Gyperus elegans. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

When discussing the weeds of the Andaman Flora {Jour. As. Soc. 
Beng.) the writer imagined this fern to have been introduced into these 
islands by human agency, at least indirectly. But the Coco locality 
proves sufficiently to his mind that its presence is altogether iadepen- 
dent of man’s presence, and he has since then collected it in similar 
situations in South Andaman. It is probably not at all common how¬ 
ever, and hence it had escaped the notice of Mr. Kurz when he collected 
in the Andamans. 

301. Polypodium irtoides Lamk. 

In all the islands, frequent. 

India, Indo-China, Andamans, Malaya; Australia, Polynesia; Africa 

302. POLTPODIUM ADNASCENS Sw. 

Great Coco, on trees in mangrove swamps; Little Coco, on trees in 
lagoon at south-west end of island. 

India, Indo-China; Andamans, Nicobars; Malaya; Polynesia; 
Africa. 

303. Polypodium quercifolium Linn. 

In all the islands, very plentiful in the same situations as Davallia 
solida. 

India, Indo-China; Andamans, Nicobars ; Malaya; North Australia. 

304. ViTTARIA ELONGATA Sw. 

Great Coco, not very common. 

India, Indo-China; Andamans, Malaya; Australia, Polynesia; 
Africa. 

305. Acrostichum scandens J. Sm. 

Great Coco, very common in the low-lying lands behind the coast 
zone. 

India, Indo-China; Andamans, Malaya; Australia, Polynesia. 

306. Acrostichum appendiculatum Willd., var. setosa. 

Great Coco, the only common ground fern on the interior ridges. 
India, Indo-China; Andamans, Malaya. 

307. Lygodium plexuosum Sw. ; Bedd. 

In all the islands, common in the dense dwarfed jungle on the 
ridges. 

India, Burma; Andamans, Malaya; Australia; Africa. 
CHARACB^. 

308. Chara f(etida A. Braun. 

Little Coco; abundant in the lagoon. 

India, Indo-China. 


147 


MUSCI. 


309. Galympeees Doztanum Mitt. 

Great Coco, on damp rocks in a sheltered bay on west coast, also on 
Mimusops trunks in coast zone; Little Coco, on trunks of Mimusops 
littoralis. 

Samoa; Java, Philippines ; Ceylon ; Admiralty Islands. 

310. Bryum coronatum Schwaegr, 

Great Coco, on charred stumps of Mimusops littoralis at South end 
of island. 

Tropics of both hemispheres. 

HEPATIC^. 


311. Lejeunia sp. 

In all the islands, on trees, common. 

312. Hepatica sp. (genus indeterminable). 

Great Coco, on trees in mangrove swamps. 

Cellulares. 

LICHENES 

313. CoLLEMA nigrescens Achar. 

Little Coco, soft pulpy masses on stems of Cycas BumpTiii 
Cosmopolitan. 

314. Physcia sp. (near Ph. ohscura Er.) ^ 

Little Coco, on stems of Cycas Bumphii 

315. Physcia sp. 

Great Coco, on rocks, west coast. 

316. Lepraria sp. (specimens imperfect). 

Great Coco. 

EUNGI. 

317. Lentinus leucochrous Fries. 

Great Coco, on dead wood, common. 

* Asia. 

318. Lenzites deplanata Fries. 

Great Coco, on dead wood, common. 

* Asia. 

319. Lenzites subeerruginea Berk. 

Great Coco 

* Asia. 

148 



339 


320. PoLYPORUS PULVUS Fries. 

Great Coco. 

* Asia. 

321. PoLYPORUS XANTHOPUs Fries. 

Great Coco, on dead stems. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

322. PoLYPOECS SANGUINEUS Fries. 

Great Coco ; on dead stems of Cocos nucifera. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

323. POLYPORUS GRAMMATOCEPHALUS Berk. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Australia, America. 

324. PoLYPORUS AUSTRALIS Fries. 

Great Coco. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

325. Hexagona pergamenea Berk. & Broome. 

Great Coco, 

Ceylon (Berkeley mid Broome, Jour. Linn. Soc. xiv, 57). 

326. Hexagona srriceo-hirsutus K1. 

Great Coco ; on dead wood. 

North America {KlotzscTi, Linncea viii, 483). 

327. Hexagona tenuis Hook. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

Nicobars (Fenzl, Novara Bot. ii, 138); Mauritius (Klotzsch, Linncea 
viii, 482). 

328. Ded^lea elabellum Berk. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

* Asia. 

329. DED.ffiLEA SANGUINEA Kl. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

India {Klotsch, Linncea viii, 481). 

330. DED.ffiLEA QUERCiNA Fries. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

Cosmopolitan. 

331. Dedj:lea concentrica Fries. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

332. Thelephora incrustans Pers. 

Great Coco, on Pongamia glabra; Little Coco, on Cycas Bumphii. 
Cosmopolitan. 

333. Bovista lilacina Berk. 

Great Coco, on grassy slopes. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 


149 


340 

334. Hirneola polttricha Mont. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

Tropics of both hemispheres and Polynesia. 

335. Xylaria clavarioides G. Massee, sp. nov. 

Xylaria (Xylocoryne) stromatibus saepius solitariis rarius in caespiti- 
bus 2—5 connatis cylindraceis, 2—4 cm. altis, J| diam.; extus atris 
papilloso-scabris, intus candidis stipite elongate, coriaceo-suberoso 
nigro-velutino demum nudo; peritheciis clavul® omnino immersis; 
ascis cylindricis, pedicellatis, octosporis ; sporidiis oblique monostichis, 
ellipticis, nigricantibus 10—11 x /x. (Prain n. 45). In lignis pn- 
tridis. 

Great Coco, common on dead stems of Mimusops Uttoralis. 

386. Daldinia veb^^icosa Cos. & de Not. 

Great Coco, on dead wood. 

India, America. 

337. Rhytisma sp. 

In all the islands, on leaves of Ficus hrevicuspis. 

Andamans, (the same species apparently is equally common at Port 
Blair). 

338, -. 

Besides the above there occurs on both islands a Fungus which 
appears to be very widely dispersed throughout the Andamans and 
Nicobars, but has so far been only found as a white mycelium that ap¬ 
pears as a narrow band on the bark of slender branches, runs upwards 
along these and divides into still narrower bands on the branchlets • 
these branch and anastomose and send still narrower bands (threads) 
upwards along the petioles of the leaves and finally spread as a thin 
network on the under surface of the lamina. The writer has found the 
same blight (known to the oflficers at Port Blair as “ thread-blight ”) 
on the following species: Alsodeia hengalensis, OcTina sguarrosa, Bomhax 
insigne, Camellia theifera, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Gardenia sp., Fongamia 
glabra, Hiplospora singularis, Blachia andamanica, Ficus nitida ; it is 
also reported to occur on a species of Phalcenopsis. Its effect is in every 
case the same, the leaves affected become yellow and sickly, and as 
regards Ochna among indigenous species and the Tea-plant among 
cultivated species, when affected they become brown and die. The 
blight spreads with great rapidity and for a time threatened the existence 
of the Tea-industry at Port Blair. Brs. Cunningham and Barclay 
have both examined specimens but as there is no sign of any advance 
beyond the mycelial stage the position of the Fungus is at present 
indeterminable. 


150 



341 


339. -. 

A second fungus of some interest is an Uredine that was found in 
considerable quantity on Glerodendron inerme. This the writer has 
met with, always producing the same characteristic effects on this 
Glerodendron, in South Andaman, Little Andaman, and Car Nicobar, as 
well as on Great Coco. The specimens were examined by the late Dr. 
Barclay, but were found insufficient for determination. 

340. -. 

A third fungus of note causes a “ dry-rot ” in the fallen trunks of 
Mimtisops littoralis on the beaeh. The effect produced simulates in a 
wonderful manner charring by fire; it appears to be confined, so far as 
the drift timber and wreckage on these islands is concerned, to Mimusops 
and Quercus —the planks of a wooden vessel, apparently of oak, that had 
been wrecked on Little Coco, being attacked like the Bullet-wood trees; 
Teak, Sundiu and other logs were not affected. 

ALG^. 

341. Sargassum ilicifolium J. Agardh. 

In all the islands; in great beds at the outer margins of the fringing 
reefs and in the deeper water beyond; the only really common sea-weed. 

Almost Cosmopolitan in the tropics ; not from Australia (Remsl., 
Report on Bot. of Admiralty Islands, p, 271). 

342. Turbinaria ornata J. Agardh. 

In all the islands ; rather common both on coral and on sandstone 
reefs. 

* Indian Ocean. 

343. Padina pavonia Gaill. 

In all the islands; on both coi’al and sandstone. 

Cosmopolitan in tropical seas. 

344. Dicttota dichotoma Lamour. 

Great Coco; on coral reefs. 

Common in both north and south temperate seas, rarer in the 
tropics. 

345. Lithothamnion poltmorphum Aresch. 

Great Coco; on coral reefs. 

Atlantic, Mediterranean, South Africa ; Chonos Archipelago. 

346. Acanthophora Thierii Lamour. 

Little Coco ; pools on coral reefs. 

Cosmopolitan in tropical seas. 

347. Jania tenella Kuetz. 

Great Coco; on reefs, on Lithothamnion polymorphum. 

* Indian Ocean. 


151 




342 


348. Gracilaria crassa Harv. 

In both islands ; in pools on coral sand. 

* Indian Ocean. 

349. Gelidium corneum J. Agardh. 

Great Coco; on coral reefs; also growing on Halimeda Opuntia. 
Almost Cosmopolitan. 

[A specimen of a Gelidium washed up by the tide on Little Coco, 
was too much withered and bleached to be identified ; another was 
collected there on the reefs, but in too early a stage of development to 
be named.] 

350. Caulerpa clavipera J. Agardh. 

Both islands ; on reefs. 

Cosmopolitan in tropical seas. 

351. Caulerpa plumabis J. Agardh. 

Little Coco; in pools on coral reefs. 

* Indian Ocean. 

352. Valonia pastigiata Harv. 

Great Coco ; on coral reefs. 

Indian Ocean and Pacific. 

353. Valonia conpervoides Harv. 

Great Coco; in pools on coral sand. 

* Indian Ocean. 

[A species of Valonia was collected on Little Coco also, but in too 
early a stage of development to be named]. 

354. Halimeda Opuntia Lamour. 

In both islands ; both on sandstone and on coral reefs, rather com¬ 
mon. 

Cosmopolitan in tropical seas. 

355. SiPHONOCLADUS ? PILfPOBMIS De Toni. 

Washed ashore on the coast of Little Coco after stormy weather 
that prevailed for three days during our visit. 

356. Vaucheria sp. 

Little Coco ; on sandstone reefs. Hone of the specimens obtained 
were in fruit. 

Andamans and Nicobars, the same species apparently was found by 
the writer to be plentiful in South Andaman and in Car Hicobar. 

357. Calothrix Pulvinata J. Agardh. 

Little Coco; in pools above high water mark. 

Cosmopolitan. 

358. -. 

A Nostoeaceous Alga in habit, very like the preceding, was obtained 
152 



343 

in the shallower tidal pools on Great Coco, but the specimens were too 
much withered to be determinable. 

[Where an asterisk precedes the distribution of any Fungus or Alga 
it has been impossible to ascertain whether the species in question 
extends beyond the area indicated]. 


§ § § Nature, Distribution, and probable Origin op the Flora. 

In this list 358 distinct species are recorded, distributed among 268 
genera and 95 natural orders ; 297 species are Phanerogams and 61 are 
Cryptogams, giving a proportion of nearly five flowering plants to one 
flowerless species, the exact proportions and percentages being :— 

Phanerogams: Cryptogams:: 4-85: 1. 

Phanerogams == 83 % ; Cryptogams — 17 %. 

In the two groups Filices and AlgcB the list represents the Crypto- 
gamic flora with probably the same degree of adequacy that it does the 
Phanerogamic. In the other Cryptogamic groups it is to be feared the 
representation is not so complete. Still the scarcity of Mosses and Lichens 
is a very striking feature of the flora, so is the paucity of Ferns ; with all 
three groups it is not merely a case of few species being present, there 
are, except perhaps in the case of Acrostichum scandens, which is common, 
remarkably few individuals of these species. 

Among the 297 Phanerogams, 238 are Licots; only one of these 
(Cycas Bumphii) is a Gymnosperm, the other 59 being Monocots. The 
Bicots are distributed amongst 59 natural orders and 178 genera, the 
Monocots amongst 14 natural orders and 45 genera. The proportions 
and percentages here are :— 

Dicots : Monocots :: 4 : 1. 

Dicotyledons = 80 °/q ; Monocotyledons = 20 °/q. 

Altogether 66 per cent, of the flora consists of Dicotyledons, whilst 
among these the Polypetalm exceed in number the rest of the groups 
combined, a somewhat unusual circumstance, since, as regards species at 
least, the Indian Oamopetalce usually exceed the Polypetalce; Polypetalce 
here constitute, as it happens, one-third, or 33 % of the whole flora. 

There are only 15 Vascular Cryptogams in the list as against 46 Cel¬ 
lular Cryptogams; these are together distributed amongst 45 genera and 
22 natural orders ; The proportions and percentages are :— 

Vascular: Cellular:: 1: 3. 

Vascular Cryptogams = 25 %; Cellular Cryptogams = 75 %. 

The subjoined table gives a synoptic view of the systematic disposi¬ 
tion of the Coco Island Flora. 


153 



344 

Table I. Systematic synopsis of Coco Island orders, genera and species. 


Phanerogams 
Dicotyledones 
f Angiospermae, 
Polypetalao 

f Thalamiflorae 
Diacifiorae ... 
Calyciflorae ... 
Gamopetalae ... 
Incompletao ... 
t_Gymnosperm 80 ... 
Monocotyledones . 


^Cryptogams .... 
f Vasculares .... 

/ Filices .... 
J \ Characeae 

"I j Mnsci .... 

I \ Hepaticae. 

[_Cellulares .... 

S Lichenes . 
Fungi .... 
Alg^ .... 

Total 


.V3 


59 


58 


30 


.14 


22 


.14 

. 2 

. 7 

._5 

Nat. Orders 95 


,223 


178 


177 


86 


45 


12 


45 


297 


238 



119 

... 31 


... 33 


... 55 



75 


43 ! 




237! 


59 


. 7 

. 1 

. 2 

. 2 

3 

.14 

.16 

Genera .268 


,33 


61 


15 


46 


Species. 358 


Of the 73 natural orders of Phanerogams 24 are represented by 
single species and 14 more by two species each. The most extensively 
represented natural order is Leguminosce, with 34 species ; followed after 
a long interval by Euphorhiacece and Qraminece, each 15 sp.; Oonvolvu- 
lacece, 14 sp.; Pubiacece-, 13 sp.,; Urticacece, 11 sp.; Gyperacece, 10 sp. 
Filices, amongst Cryptogams, are also represented by 10 species. None 
of the other orders have more than 8 species. 

As to genera: 29 of these natural orders of Phanergams are re¬ 
presented by one genus; 13 by 2 genera: 11 by 3 genera; 6 by 4 genera; 

6 by 5 genera; 4 by 6 genera; one natural order each where there are 

7 genera (^Apocynecs); 8 genera (jGraminece) ; 11 genei’a (Biibiacece) ; 12 
genera (Fuphorbiacece); and 22 genera (Leguminosce) : Leguminosce thus 
leads both as regards genera and species. The subjoined table exhibits 
the relationship of the orders according to the wealth of their repre¬ 
sentation. 


Table II. Natural orders of Coco Island Phanerogams arranged according 
to their richness in species. 


Number 

Number 


of 

of 

Names of orders. 

species. 

orders. 


34 

1 

Leguminosce. 

15 

2 

Fuphorbiaceoe, Gramineoe. 


154 

































































































345 


Number 

of 

species. 

Number 

of 

orders. 

Names of orders. 

14 

1 

ConvolvulacecB. 

13 

1 

Buhiacece. 

11 

1 

Urticacece. 

10 

1 

Gyperacece. [-Ft’Kcesarealsorepresentedby lOspecies.] 

8 

3 

Malvacece, Sterculiacece, Verhenacece. 

7 

3 

Compositce, Apocynece, Acanthacece. 

6 

2 

Anacardiaceoe, Palmece. 

5 

6 

Ampelidece, Sapindacem, Bhizophorece, Gombretacece, 
Orchidaceoe, Liliacecs. 

4 

4 

Tiliacece, Meliacece, Asclepiadacece, Aroidece. 

3 

10 

Olacinece, Gelastrinece, BJiamnece, Lythracece, Solan- 
acece, Nyctaginece, Amarantacece, Laurinece, Scita- 
minece, Commelynacece. 

Menispermacece, Capparidece, Outtiferce, Bipterocarp- 
eoe, Burseracece, Myrtacece, Bassifloracece, Myrsinece, 
Boraginece, Bignoniacece, Aristolochiacece, Myristicece, 
Bioscoreacece, Naiadece. 

2 

14 

1 

24 

Anonacece, Nymphceacece, Violacece, Butacece, 

Moringece, Gonnaracece, Melastomacece, Oucurbitacece, 
Ficoidece, Goodenoviece, Sapotacece, Ebenacece, 
Gentianacece, ScropJiularinece, Labiatce, Polygonacece, 
Piperacece, Loranthacece, Santalacece, Cycadacece, 
Amaryllidacece, Taccacece, Flagellariece, Pandanacece. 


If the species are classified according to their habit we find that 
78 are climbers, 74 are trees that may exceed 30 feet in height, 20 are 
small trees that do not exceed 30 feet, 48 are shrubs and 138 are her¬ 
baceous, (treating as herbaceous species like Garica, Sccevola, Musa, 
Crinum, etc., and all Cryptogams except the two climbing ferns, Lygodium 
and AcrosHchum scandens, which are here included among the other 
climbers). But though as regards number of species herbaceoas forms are 
so largely represented they are as a matter of fact extremely inconspic¬ 
uous, two-fifths of them being cryptogams and one-third of these being 
marine. Nor, if we except the herbaceous climbers, which are here 
dealt with along with the woody ones, and the species that occur on the 
few bare grassy slopes, are herbaceous phanerogams more numerous than 
herbaceous cryptogams. The most numerously represented herbs are 
Andropogon contortus, Besmodium polycarpon, Desmodium triquetum, 
Vernonia cinerea, Blumea virens, the various species of Fimbristylis, 
Gyperiis pennatus and polystachyus, Boerhaavia repens, Ischcemum muti- 
eum, Thuarea sarmentosa. Herbaceous species that frequent deep 

155 













346 


jungle only, sucli as Desmodium laxijlorum, Urena lohata, Gyperus elegans, 
Oplismenus compositus, Panicum montanum, Alocasia fornicata, Costus 
speciosus, Zingiber sp., Amorphopliallus sp., Acrostichum appendiculatum, 
Geratopteris thalictraides, etc., are not only very rarely met with, but are 
represented by extremely few individuals where they do occur. 

Woody sbrubs and small trees taken together do not, as regards 
species, quite equal in number the large trees. In point of number of 
individuals, however, this is not the case, for it is not unusual to find these, 
woody shrubs and the smaller trees truly gregarious, particularly on the 
ridges; the chief examples are Glycosmis pentaphiylla, Alsodeia bengaU 
ensis, Glyptopetalum calocarpum, Gydostemon assamicus, Macaranga 
Tanarms, Miliusa sp., Gijnonietra ramiflora, Leea samhucina, Dendro- 
calamus strictus; a far larger area is covered by small trees and woody 
undershrubs heavily loaded with creepers than is covered by tall forest. 
In the mangrove-swamps most species may be spoken of as gregarious, 
but even here there is no great number of trees over 40 feet high ; and 
the only gregai'ious tall trees are Mumisops littoralis and Gyrocarpus 
Jacguinii, both denizens of the beach-forest behind the Coco-nut zone, 
and Gocos nucifera itself. Among the arboreous species in these islands 
have to be included Gycas BumpUi, which is very commonly 30—35 feet 
high and of which one specimen measured in Great Coco had a clear 
stem from ground to crown of 42 feet; also Tournefortia argentea which 
in Little Coco (and elsewhere in the Andaman group) is a tree 25—40 
feet high with very black bark and a trunk often 3—3| feet in girth ; 
Pongamia glabra too, recorded by Mr. Baker in the F. B. I. as sometimes 
a climber, is here, as it also is in Bengal, always a tree from 20—60 feet 
in height. Salacia prinoides on the other hand is here always a heavy 
extensive climber. 

Erect woody species therefore, including both trees and shrubs in 
this category, form almost exactly two-sevenths of the floi’a as regards 
number of species. As regards individuals, however, it will be no over¬ 
estimation to say that these constitute six-sevenths of the vegetation, not 
merely in bulk but in actual number of individuals. 

Climbing species, as compared with those having an erect or 
prostrate habit, show a much higher proportion of woody to herbaceous 
species. This is owing to the fact that of the 78 climbers only two are 
cryptogams, while in the other group 59 cryptogams are included. To 
give therefore an accurate conception of the conditions that prevail, the 
Cellular cryptogams ought to be excluded. Of the 312 Phanerogams 
and Vascular cryptogams 234 are of erect habit and 78 are climbing, 
giving a proportion of :— 

Erect sp. : climbing sp.: ; 4 : 1. 

156 


347 

Among these erect vascular plants tlie proportion of woody to her¬ 
baceous is therefore :— 

Woody sp.: Herbaceous sp. :: 3 : 2. 

Of the climbers 35 are woody and 43 are herbaceous so that here 
the proportion is :— 

Woody sp.: Herbaceous sp.; : 2 : 2^. 

Instead thei’efore of being lower amongst climbers than erect species, 
the proportion of herbaceous species to woody ones, when attention is 
confined to vascular plants only, is actually higher. And in number 
of individuals too there is a much more even balance among climbing 
species, since herbaceous climbing species, as well as woody ones, can 
easily raise themselves to the light and air for want of which no great 
quantity of herbaceous undergrowth can exist; indeed the herbaceous 
climbing species possess many advantages over their woody rivals, for 
they are not as a rule so heavy and as, moreover, they sometimes (e. g., 
Modecca, Trichosanthes, Dioscorea, Qloriosa) die down annually, they do 
not destroy the species on which they are supported so soon as do heavy 
perennial creepers like Calamus, Tlmnhergia, Anodendron, Ghonemorplia, 
Berris, etc., which in a few season drag down the trees on which they 
climb. 

Some of the woody climbers, such as Anodendron and Tlmnhergia, 
climb to great heights, and are not surpassed in this respect even by the 
Modecca. The majority of the woody climbers, however, like Sarcostigma, 
Salacia, Pisonia aculeata, Pleaospermum, the species of Acacia and of 
Capparis, are not to be found on tall trees at all, but load heavily the 
woody undergrowth of small trees and shrubs that forms the bulk of the 
forest. Hor is it unusual to find the forest, where composed of tall trees, 
exhibiting both classes of creepers ; the characteristic lofty creepers on 
the tall trees overhead, the heavy woody creepers on the shrubby under¬ 
growth below. 

Of the climbing species 20, or 25%, are armed. As a rule the 
armed species may be said to belo'ng to the class of undergrowth clim¬ 
bers ; with the exception of the two species of Calamus, the lofty climbers 
are unarmed. 

The habit of the Coco Island species is shewn in the subjoined table. 


157 


348 


Table III. Habit of Goco Island species. 

Vascular species (Phanerogams and Vascular Cryptogams).... 


Species with erect habit ... 234 

Woody species . 142 

Trees . 94 

Exceeding 30 feet74 

Under 30 feet . ^ 

Shrubs. 48 

Herbaceous species (Herbs and Herbaceous 

shrubs). ^ 

Climbing species. 

Woody climbers . 35 

Armed. 13| 

Unarmed. 22 


Herbaceous climbers 


43 


Armed . 7 

Unarmed . . 36 


Non-vascular species (Lower Cryptogams) 


312 


46 


Total Coco Island species ... 358 

As regards habitat it will be gathered from what has been said 
above that a very large proportion of the flora is of arborescent forest- 
type. Hext in point of numbers to the inland forest species, though only 
half as numerous, are the litoral species ; following these at about an 
equal interval are parasitic or saprophytic species—a class here almost 
entirely composed of Fungi ; after these in succession epiphytes ; marine 
species, (mainly Algcs) j weeds of cultivation ; cultivated species ; marsh 
or water plants; and species of open grassy slopes. 

The subjoined table gives the numbers of each class of species ; the 
meadow species, here separated from the forest species, are, owing to the 
smallness of their numbers, in all subsequent tables included with the 
forest species. 

Table IV. Habitat of Coco Island species. 


Civilized species . .! ... 33 

Cultivated plants . 15 j 

Weeds of cultivation . . . 18 


Wild species. . 325 

Parasites and Saprophytes (Phanerog. 1) . ,... 31 

Epiphytes. 19 

Marine plants (Phanerog. 1) 19 

Littoral species . 80 

Inland species . 176 

Forest species. 162 

Jungle. 1501 

Grassy species . 12| 

Marsh and water species . 14 

Total Coco Island species ... 358 


158 










































349 


The subjoined table exhibits tbe relationship that subsists between 
the systematic disposition of the species and their habit and habitat. 


Table V. 


Relationship between systematic arrangement, habit and habitat. 


Habit. 


Habitat. 


Total. 

Cliinbers. 

Trees. 

Shrubs. 

Herbs. 

Systematic Arrangement. 

Cultivated 

sp. 

Weeds. 

Forest sp. 

Marsh. 

Littoral, 

Marine. 

Epiphytic. 

Parasiticete. 

Total. 

1 


! 1 






] 






1 

2 

2 




Menispermaceae 

• «< 


£ 






2 

1 


... 


1 

Nyniph^ace®... 

t.* 

... 

... 

1 





1 

2 

2 



... 

Capparideae 

... 

... 

2 






2 

1 


1 






] 






1 

2 


2 



(rntitifprfft 



1 


1 




2 

2 

• . . 

2 


• »• 

Dipterocarpese 


... 

2 






2 

8 


3 

2 

3 

Malvace® 

2 

2 

2 


2 

. • . 



8 

8 

i 

7 



Sterculiaceae ... 

• «. 

... 

6 


2 




8 

4 


1 

3 











4 

I 



1 

.7. 

Rutacero 

... 

. • . 

1 






1 

2 


9 






2 






2 

4 


4 

. . . 


Meliaceae 



3 


1 




4 

3 

2 

1 






£ 






3 

3 

] 

1 

1 





9 


] 




3 

3 

3 




Rbamne^ 

. * • 

... 

2 

... 

1 




3 

5 

3 


2 


Ampelideae 

... 

... 

4 


1 




5 

5 


4 

1 

... 

Sapindaceae 

... 

... 

5 






5 

6 


6 



Anacardiaceae ... 

... 

.. . 

5 


1 

. . . 

... 


6 

1 


1 




1 








1 

1 


] 






1 






1 

34 

18 

6 

7 

”3 

Leguminosae ... 

3 

2 

19 

... 

10 




34 

5 

... 

5 


... 

Rbizophoreae ... 

... 



... 

5 


... 

... 

5 

5 

1 

3 

1 





2 

. . . 

3 




5 

2 


2 


... 

Myrtaceae 

... 




2 



... 

2 

1 



1 





1 






1 

3 

. .. 

2 

1 


Lythraceae 



2 


1 




3 

2 

1 



1 


1 


1 






2 

1 

1 







1 






1 

1 




1 






1 




1 

13 

2 

6 

5 





9 


4 




13 

7 

1 

1 

"*5 

Compositae 


3 

2 

... 

2 




7 

1 




1 


1 . . 


- . . 

1 




1 

2 


2 

. .. 


Myrsineae 

... 

.. 

... 

... 

1 


... 


1 

1 


1 



Sapotaceae 

... 

•• 

... 

... 

1 




1 

1 


1 






1 






1 

7 

2 

2 



Apocyneae 


.. 

4 


3 




7 

4 

4 




Asclepiadaceae ... 

... 




1 

• • 

3 


4 

J 




i 





1 





1 

2 


*2 


Boragineae ... ... ... 

... • 

.. 







2 

14 

14 





2 


3 


9 




14 

3 



1 

2 


2 . 




1 




3 

1 



1 

Scropbnlarineae 


i 







1 

2 


2 



Bignoniaceae ... 

. 

2 






2 

7 

i 



6 

Acanthaceae ... 

... ! 1) 

a 

1 

2 




7 


159 





































































































350 


Habit. 

Systematic arrangement. 

Habitat. 

Total. 

Climbers. 

Trees. 

Shrubs. 

Herbs. 

Cultivated 

sp. 

Weeds. 

Forest sp. 

Marsh. 

Littoral. 

Marine. 

d 

• r* 

> 

_P 

‘p 

Parasiticate. 

8 

2 

3 

2 

1 

Verbenaceae ... 



2 

1 

5 




1 




1 





1 





3 

1 

1 


1 

Nyctaginese 

... 




3 


... 


2 




3 


2 

1 







1 




1 

Polygonaceae ... 



... 

1 





2 

1 



1 

Aristolochiaceae 



2 






1 

1 




Piperaceae 



1 






2 


2 


... 

Myristiceao 

,, 


2 






3 

1 

2 


... 

Laurineae 

. •. 


1 


1 



1 

1 




1 









1 

1 


1 



Sautalaoese . ... 





1 




15 



13 

2 

Euphorbiaceao 


1 

13 


1 




11 

1 

io 



Urticaoeae ... 



11 






1 


1 



Cycadaceae 





1 




5 




5 

Orchidaceae . . ... 



1 




4 


3 




3 


1 


o 






1 




1 





1 




1 




1 






1 




2 

2 




nioReorfin.cftfH 



2 






5 

3 


1 

1 

Liliaceae 



4 


1 

•» . 



3 




3 

Commelynaoeae 



3 






1 

1 




Plagellarieae 





1 




6 

2 

3 

1 


Palmeae 

1 


4 


1 




1 


• •• 

1 


Pandanaceae ... 





1 

... 

... 


4 

2 



9 

Aroideae 



2 




2 


2 




2 

Naiadaceae 




1 


1 



10 




10 

Cyperaceae 


2 

3 

4 

1 




15 



1 

14 

rTrn,minp,f« 


5 

0 

2 

2 




10 

2 



8 

Pilioes 



1 

1 



8 


] 




1 

Characeae 




1 





2 




2 

Musci 







2 


2 




2 

Hepaticae 







2 


4 




4 

Lichenes 








4 

24 




24 

Fungi 



1 





23 

18 




18 

AllCTfft 






18 


358 

78 

94 

48 

138 

Totals 

15 

18 

162 

14 

30 

19. 

21 

29 3 


8 

1 

3 

3 

1 

2 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

15 

11 

1 

5 

3 

1 

1 

2 

5 

3 
1 

6 
1 
4 , 
2 

10 

15 

10 

1 

2 

2 

4 
24 
18 


In considering the distribution of the species in this list it has to 
be borne in mind that the islands in which they have been collected 
form an integral portion of the phytogeopraphic province of South-Eastern 
Asia—an area comprising the Indian Peninsula and Ceylon, the lower 
slopes of the Himalaya—particularly its eastern and central portion, 
South China, Indo-China and Malaya. To this area too apparently 
ought to be added, at least as regards many littoral species and many 
160 


































































































351 


spGciss with, succulent fruits, Northern Australia. IVhile, therefore, in 
the table of distribution the occurrence of the species in the large divi¬ 
sions of the globe are given on the left hand side, on the right hand the 
distribution within South-Eastern Asia itself is given. Further, since 
the geographical position of these islands indicates that they are an inte¬ 
gral portion of the Andaman chain, and as the Andamans altogether form 
as it were part of the debatable land between Indo-Chiua and Malaya, 
the occurrence of the species there is also noted. In all cases where the 
occurrence of a species in the Andamans is, at least so far as we yet 
know, only due to its pi’esence in the Coco Islands, the species in ques¬ 
tion is indicated by [ ] brackets. The other debatable territory, so far 
as Malaya and Indo-China ai’e concerned, is Tenasserim, and in all cases 
where the occurrence of a Coco Island species in Indo-China depends 
entirely on its occurrence in Tenasserim it is marked by the same [] 
brackets in the Indo-Chinese column. Similarly when, as is frequently 
the case, a species is only African in the sense of occurring in the Mas- 
carene Islands, the same [] brackets are used in the African column. 


Table VI. Distribution of the species observed in the Coco Group. 


Distribution in S. E. Asia, 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

Westn. 

Section. 

Eastn. Section. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

1 Ceylon. ] 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China. 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

1 Malaya. | 




_ 


X 


Milinsa sp. ... 



X 




X 

X 

— 

- 

X 

X 

X 

Cyclea peltata 


— 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Antitaxis calocarpa 


— 

X 



... 

X 

X 

X 

- 

X 

X 

X 

Nymphsea Lotus ... 


X 

X 




— 

— 

- 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Capparis sepiaria var. 














grandifolia 

• •• 

_ 

X 

— 


_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

Capparis tenera var. latifolia 

. .. 


X 


* 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 


Alsodeia bengalensis 


_ 

X 

_ 


- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[x] 

— 

Garcinia sp. 

. . . 

_ 

X 


__ 

_ 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Calophyllnm inophyllum 


1-1 

X 

1_ J 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Dipterocarpus pilosus 

• •• 

— 

X 

— 

— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Dipterocarpus alatns 


- 

X 

— 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Sida acuta 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Urena lobata 

... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hibiscus Sabdariffa 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hibiscus Abelmoschus 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hibiscus tilliaceus 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Thespesia populnea 

• f • 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 


X 



X 

X 


Bombax insigne ... 



X 

— 




I9I 
































352 


Distribution in S. E 

. Asia. 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

Westn. 

Section. 

1 Eastn. Section. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

o 

o 

O 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China. 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

1 Malaya. i 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Eriodendron anfractuosum ... 

X 

X 



X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

[x. 

— 

Stercnlia villosa ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 

* 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Sterculia rubiginosa var. 













glabrescens ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Stercnlia parviflora 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Sterculia alata 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

[x: 

— 

Sterculia colorata 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 


- 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Sterculia campanulata 

— 

X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Heritiera littoralis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[X] 

X 

- 

Buettneria andamanensis 

— 

X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Berrya Ammonilla 

— 

X 

_ 

_ 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Grewia Isevigata ... 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 


— 

X 

- 

Grewia calophylla 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Grewia Microcos . 

_ 

X 

— 

_ 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Glycosmis pentaphylla 


X 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Garuga pinnata ... 


X 

— 

— 

— 


— 

— 

— 


X 

— 

Canarium euphyllum 


X 

— 

— 

* 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Aglaia andamanica 

_ 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Amoora Eohituka 


X 

_ 

_ 

— 

X 

X 


— 

X 

X 

X 

Carapa moluccensis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Chickrassia tabularis 


X 




X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cansjera Rheedii... 


X 

X 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

Phlebocalymna Lobbiana 

— 

X 


_ 

_ 

— 

— 

— 


? 

X 

— 

Sarcostigma Wallichii 

— 

X 

— 

— 


— 

— 

— 

* 

[X] 

[x ] 

— 

Glyptopetalum calocarpum ... 

— 

X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

— 

—* 

X 

X 

X 

Salacia prinoides... 

_ 

X 

— 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[X] 

[x] 

X 

Siphonodon celastrineus 

_ 

X 



— 

— 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

VentiJago calycnlata 

_ 

X 

- 

— 


X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

Zizyphus (Enoplia 


X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

Colubrina asiatica 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 



X 

X 

— 

Vitis pentagona ... 


X 

- 

— 


X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Vitis carnosa ... 


X 

X 


_ 

X 

X 


— 

X 

X 

X 

Vitis pedata 

_ 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

Leea sambucina ... ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Leea hirta 


X 

— 



~ 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Erioglossum edule 


X 

X 

. 


X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Allophylus Cobbe 


X 

X 


_ 

— 

X 

X 


X 

[x] 

— 

Sapindns Danura 


X 




X 

— 



X 

X 

X 

Pometia tomentosa 

_ 

X 


_ 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Dodonma viscosa... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

Odina Wodier 


X 

_ 



— 

— 

— 


[x] 

[X] 

— 

Parishia insignis ... 

_ 

X 

— 



— 

— 



X 

[x] 


Semecarpus subpanduriformis 

_ 

X 

— 

— 

_ 


— 

— 

““ 

— 

X 

X 

Semecarpus heterophyllns ... 


X 

— 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Spondias mangifera 

— 

X 

— 






X 

X 

X 

X 

Gracontomelum mangiferum 

— 

X 


X 



162 






































363 


Distribution in S. E 

Asia. 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

Westn, 

Section. 

Eastn. Section. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 1 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

1 Ceylon. 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China. 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

1 Malaya. | 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Moringa pterygosperma 


X 

X 

[x] 

[x] 

[x] 

* 


— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Connarus gibbosns 



X 




— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

Crotalaria sericea 



X 

■ 

. 


X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Desmodium nmbellatnm 


X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Desmodium triquetrum 


X 

X 



_ 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Desmodium laxiflorum 



X 


. 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Desmodium polycarpum 


X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Desmodium triflorum 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Alysicarpus vaginalis 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

? 

? 

? 

? 

? 

X 

? 

Phaseolus sp. 


— 

X 


.. 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Abrus precatorius 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Abrus pulchellus 


— 

X 

_ 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Erythrina indica . 


[X] 

X 

X 

X 


— 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

Mucuna gigantea 


[x] 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Mucnna pruriens 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

** 

— 

— 


[>^] 

X 

Pueraria Candollei 


— 

X 




— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pueraria pbaseoloides 


_ 

X 

_ 

_ 

_ 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Canavalia obtusifolia 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Vigna lutea 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pterocarpus indicus 


— 

X 

- 

— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Derris scandens ... 


_ 

X 

X 



X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Derris sinuata 



X 

— 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Derris uliginosa ... 


X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pongamia glabra 


[xj 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Sophora tomentosa 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

[X] 

X 

X 

Mezoneuron enneaphyllum 



X 

— 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Caesalpinia Bonducella 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Csesalpinia Nuga 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Tamarindus indica 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

[X] 

X 

X 

Cynometra ramiflora 


— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Entada scandens 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Adenanthera pavonina 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Acacia concinna 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Acacia pennata ... 


X 

X 

— 

— 

•- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Albizzia Lebbek ... 


X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Albizzia procera ... 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Rhizophora mucronata 


X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Rhizophora conjugata 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ceriops Oandolleana 


— 

X 

X 



— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ceriops Roxburghiana 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Bruguiera gymnorhiza 


[^] 

X 

X 

X 

— 


— 


— 

— 

X 

X 

Terminalia Catappa 



X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[X] 

X 

— 

Terminalia bialata 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Lumnitzera raceraosa 


X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

- 

- 

— 

[X] 

X 

— 

Illigera Conyzadenia 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

Gyrocarpus Jacquinii 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[X] 




X 

X 

Barringtonia speciosa 

... 

[x] 

X 

X 

X 

~ 


163 



































354 


Distribution in S. E 

. Asia. 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

Westn. 

Section. 

Eastn. Section. 

Africa. 

S. B. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

o 

o 

<s 

O 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China. 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

Malaya. 


X 



X 

X 

X 

Barringtonia racemosa 

X 

X 


X 


X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Memecylon ednle 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Femphis acidula ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

-- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Lagerstrcemia hypoleuca 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[x] 

— 

Lagerstrcemia sp. 

— 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Modecca cordifolia 


X 

_ 

— 

— 

X 

. X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Carica Papaya 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Trichosanthes palmata 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

Sesnvinm Portnlacastrnm ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Stephegyne diversifolia 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Mnssaenda calycina 

— 

X 

— 


— 

— 

— 

-- 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Webera Knrzii ... 


X 

— 

_ 


— 

— 

— 

- 

X 

X 

X 

Randia longiliora 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Diplospora singnlaris 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Guettarda speciosa 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

*_ 

X 

X 

Ixora grandiliora var. 













Kurzeana ... ... 

— 

X 

_ 

— 

* 

— 

— 

— 

— 


X 

— 

Ixora brunnescens 

— 

X 




— 

— 


— 

X 

X 

— 

Ixora cnneifolia ... 

_ 

X 

_ 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pavetta indica 

_ 

X 

X 



X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Morinda citrifolia var. 













bracteata 


X 


_ 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

[x] 

— 

Psycbotria adenopbylla 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Psederia foetida ... 

— 

X 

_ 

_ 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Vernonia cinerea 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

— 

X 

X 

[X] 


Vernonia divergens 


X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Adenostemma viscosum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ageratum conyzoides 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

— 

— 

X 

[X] 

X 

Blumea virens 

— 

X 

— 

_ 


— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Plucbea indica ... 

— 

X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Wedelia scandens 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Scaevola Koenigii 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ardisia humilis ... 


X 

— 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

HSgiceras majus ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

_ 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Mimusops littoralis 

— 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Diospyros Knrzii 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Eauvrolfia serpentina 

— 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

Cerbera Odollam 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ocbrosia borbonica 

>] 

X 

— 



— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

- 

Tabernsemontana crispa 


X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

[x] 

X 

— 

Stropbanthus Wallicbii 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Anodendron paniculatum 

— 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Cbonemorpba macropbylla ... 

— 

X 

- 

— 

— 

— 

I—1 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Sarcolobus globosus 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Hoya parasitica ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Hoya diversifolia 

— 

X 

— 

— 




t 


X 

X 

X 

Discbidia nummularia 


X 

X 




164 








































355 


Distribution in S. E. Asia. 


General Distri¬ 
bution, 


Westn. 

Sectn. 

Eastn. Sectn. 

^Names of Species. 

Africa, 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

( Ceylon, 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China. 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

1 Malaya. I 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

Limnanthemnm indicnm 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Cordia suhcordata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Tonrneforfcia argeutea 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Erycibe panioulata 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Argyreia tiliasfolia 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

X 

X 

- 

Argyreia Hookeri 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[ X] 

[x] 

— 

Argyreia lanceolata 

— 

X 

_ 

— 


— 

— 

— 

LxJ 

L X J 

— 

Letfcsomia pegnensis 

— 

X 

— 

- 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomaea gran diflora 

X 

X 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomsea coccinea ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomaea Batatas ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomsea digitata ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomsea denticnlata 

[X] 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomsea Tnrpethnm 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ipomsea biloba 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Convolvnlus parviflorus 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[x] 

X 

- 

Porana speotabilis 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Solanum Melongena 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Physalis minima ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Capsicum minimum 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Scoparia dnlcis 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Oroxylum indicum 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

Heterophragma adenophyl- 












lum 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Thunbergia laurifolia 

— 

X 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Hygrophila quadrivalvis 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[X] 

[X] 

— 

Strobilanthes phyllostachyus 

— 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

[X] 

X 

X 

Eranthemum album 

— 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 


X 

? 

Eranthemum succifolium 

— 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Rungia parviflora var. pec- 












tinata 


X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Peristrophe acuminata 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Lippia nodiflora ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Premna integrifolia 

— 

X 

? 

? 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

- 

Premna sp. {? P. obtusifolia)... 

— 

X 

? 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Vitex Negundo 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Vitex pubescens ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

? 

Vitex Wimberleyi {? V. Suma- 












trana) 

— 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Clerodendron inerme 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Avicennia officinalis 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[X] 

X 

Anisomeles ovata 

— 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Boerhaavia repens 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pisonia aculeata ... 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Pisonia excelsa 

— 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Celosia cristata ... 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Achyranthes aspera 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 


X 


X 

X 

X 


X 


X 


X 

X 

X 


165 


America. 





























356 


Distribution in S. E 

. Asia. 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

Westn. 

Sectn. 

Eastn. Sectn. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

1 Ceylon, I 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China. 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

' Malaya. I 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Achyranthes aspera var. por- 













phyristachya 

— 

X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Gom phrena globosa 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polygonum barbatum 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Bragantia tomentosa 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Aristolochia tagala 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[ x] 

X 

X 

Piper cauinum 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 


— 

— 

[ X] 

X 

X 

Myristica Irjm 

— 

X 

— 


— 



— 

— 


X 

X 

Myristica glauca ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 



— 

— 

— 


X 

— 

Dehaasia Kurzii ... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hei’nandia peltata 

[^] 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cassytha filiformis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Loranthus longiflorus 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


— 

— 

[x ] 

X 

X 

Champereia Griffithiana 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Euphorbia Atoto ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Euphorbia pilulifera 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


— 


X 

— 

Bridelia Kurzii 

— 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Bridelia tomentosa 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[ x] 

[x; 

— 

Phyllanthus columnaris 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Flueggia microcar pa 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

X 

[x. 

- 

Cyclostemon assamicus 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

Aporosa villosula 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 


— 

- 

— 

[ x] 

X 

- 

Croton snblyratus 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Blachia andamanica 


X 

— 

— 


— 

— 

— 

- 


X 

X 

Claoxylon longifolium 

— 

X 

- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[x] 

X 

y 

Mallotus acnminatus 

— 

X 

— 


— 

- 

— 

— 

— 


X 

— 

Mallotns andamanicus 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Macaranga Tanarins 

- 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Onesmone javanica 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Phyllochlamys spinosa 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


— 

— 

[x] 

X 

— 

Plecospermum andamanicnm 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ficus Benjamina ... 

— 

X 

X 


— 

- 

X 

X 

— 

X • 

X 

X 

Ficus Rumphii ... ... 

— 

X 


— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ficus retusa var. nitida 


X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Ficus brevicuspis ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Ficus callosa 

— 

X 

— 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ficus hispida 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[x] 

[X] 

- 

Ficus grisea 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Antiaris toxicaria 

— 

X 


— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

Artocarpus Gomeziana 

— 

X 



_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[x] 

X 

X 

Cycas Rumphii 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Dendrobium secundum 


X 


_ 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

Calanthe reratrifolia 

_ 

X 

X 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

[X1 

— 

Dorites Wightii ... 

_ 

X 




— 

X 

X 

— 

[x] 

[x] 


rides multiflorum 


X 




X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

Pholidota imbricata 

_ 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Costus speciosus ... 

— 

X 

— 


— 


166 









































367 


Distribution in S. E. Asia. 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

Westu. 

Secfcn. 

Eastn. Sectn. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

1 Ceylon. 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China. 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

Malay a. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[X] 

_ 

Zingiber sp. 


_ 

X 




X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Musa sapientnm ... 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Crinum asiaticnm 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Tacca pinnatifida ... 


X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Dioscorea glabra ... 


— 

X 

— 

* 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Dioscorea pentaphylla 

• •• 

— 

X 

1 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 


Smilax macrophylla 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Asparagus racemosus 


- 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Dracaena angustifolia 


— 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Dracaena spicata ... 

• •• 


X 


— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Gloriosa superba ... 


— 

X 

— 

— 

- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Pollia zorzogonensis 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Commelina obliqua 

• •• 

— 

X 


— 


— 

— 

— 


X 

X 

X 

Aneilema ovatum 

• • • 

— 

X 


— 


X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Flagellaria indica 


X 

X 

X 

— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Caryota sobolifera 


— 

X 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Corypha elata 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

- 

— 

— 

[x] 

- 

Livistona sp. ... 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

Calamus tigrinus... 


— 

X 

— 

— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Calamus andamanicus 


— 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Cocos nucifera 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Pandanus odoratissimua 


[x] 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

- 

— 

[x] 

- 

Amorphophallus sp. 



X 

— 

- 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Alocasia fornicata 


— 

X 

_ 

— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Scindapsus officinalis 


— 

X 

_ 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Pothos scandens ... 


— 

X 

_ 

— 


X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Cymodocea ciliata 


X 

X 

X 

— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Zanichellia palustris 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cyperus polysfcaohyus 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Oyperus elegans ... 


— 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cyperus dilutus ... 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cyperus pennatus 



X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Kyllinga brevifolia 

• ♦. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Fimbristylis diphylla 

• •• 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Fimbristylis ferruginea 

• »» 

X 

:< 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Fimbristylis quinqueangularis 

X 

X 

X 

— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Fimbristylis miliacea 

• • • 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

Soirpus subulatus 


X 

X 


— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Paspalum scrobiculatum 

« «• 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Panicum ciliare ... 

• « « 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Panicum colonum 

• f» 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Panicum Ilelopus 

• .. 

X 

X 

X 

— 


— 

_ 

_ 


_ 

X 

X 

Panicum javanicum 

• . • 

— 

X 


— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Panicum Mynrus ... 

• »« 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Panicum montanum 

• • . 

— 

X 



_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Oplismenus compositus 

. .. 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



— 

X 

X 

Thuarea sarmentosa 

... 

[X] 

X 

X 

X 



167 








































358 


UisTEiBUTiON IN S. E. Asia. 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

W estn. 
Sectn. 

Eastn. Sectn. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

1 Ceylon. 1 

1 

India. ! 

Himalaya. 

S. Cliina. 

Indo-China, 

Andamans. 

I Malaya. | 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

IschBemnm ciliare 


X 

X 




— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

IscliBemum muticnm 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Andropogon contortns 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Elensine indica ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Eleusine aegyptiaca 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[x] 

— 

Dendrocalamns strictus 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

- 

— 

X 

X 

Davallia solida 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Adiantum lunulatum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Ceratopteris thalictroides 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polypodium irioides 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polypodium adnascens 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polypodium quercifolium 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Vittaria elougata... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Acrostichum scandens 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Acrosticlium appendiculatum 

- 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Lygodium flexnosum 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

CLara foetida 

— 

X 

— 

— 

_ 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Oalymperes Dozyanum 

— 

X 

— 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Bryum coronatnm 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Lejeunia sp. 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Collema iiigrescens 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Physcia obscura ? 

X 

'X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Physcia sp. ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 


-- 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Lepraria sp. 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Lentinus leucocbrous 


X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Lenzites deplanata 

— 

X 

— 

— 


X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Lenzites subferruginea 

— 

X 

_ 

— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Polyporus fulvus ... 

— 

X 

_ 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polyporns xanthoious 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polyporus sanguineus 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Polyporus graramatocepbalus 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Polyporus australis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

- 

Hexagona pergamenea 

— 

X 


— 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[X.] 

— 

Hexagona sericeo-birsuta 

— 

X 

_ 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Hexagona tenuis ... 

X 

X 


— 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Dedselea flabellum 

— 

X 

. 

— 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Dedaelea sanguinea 

* 

X 


— 


X 

X 

X 

- 

X 

X 

X 

Dedgelea queroina 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Dedselea concentrica 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Thelepbora inorustans 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Bovista lilacina ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Hirneola polytricha ... 

X 

X 


X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

rxi 

— 

Xylaria clavarioides 

— 

X 


— 



X 


— 

— 

[xj 

— 

Daldinia vernicosa 


X 

_ 

— 

X 

- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Rhytisma sp. ... ... 


X 


— 


X 

X 

— 


X 

X 

X 

Sargassum ilicifolium 

X 

X 

.. 

X 

X 



** 



X 

X 

Turbinaria ornata 

— 

X 

- 

— 



168 





































859 


Distribution in S. E. Asia, 

Names of Species. 

General Distri¬ 
bution. 

Westn. 

Sectn. 

Eastn. Sectn. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 1 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

c 

o 

ID 

o 

India. 

Himalaya. 

S. China, 

Indo-China. 

Andamans. 

1 Malaya. I 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Padina pavonia ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 



— 

X 

X 

Dictyota dichotoma 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Lithoth amnion polymorphnm 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Acanthophora Thierii 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 


— 

X 

X 

Jania tenella 

_ 

X 




— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Gracilaria crassa ... ... 

_ 

X 



_ 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Gelidium cornenm 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Caulerpa clavifera 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Canlerpa plnmaris ... 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Valonia fastigiata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Valonia confervoides 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

Halimeda Opnntia 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Siphonocladns ? filiformis 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

— 

— 

— 


— 

— 

[x] 

— 

Vancheria sp. 

_ 

X 

- 

_ 


X 

X 



— 

X 

X 

Calothrix pnlvinata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Eeviewing the general distribution of the flora as given in Table 
VI, we find that of the 358 species, 70 are cosmopolitan in the tropics, 10 
more are nearly so, 49 are more or less widely spread throughout the. 
tropics of the old world, 41 extend from South-eastern Asia to Austra¬ 
lasia, while 188 species ai’e confined to South-eastern Asia. The sub¬ 
joined synoptic table indicates these distributional features more exactly 
and gives at the same time the relationship of this distribution both to 
the habit and to the habitat of the species. 


1G9 






























360 


Table VII. Relationship of General Distribution to Habit and Habitat. 


Habit. 


Habitat. 


Total. 

1 Climbers. | 

1 Trees. 

1 8hrubs. 

Herbs. 

Distributional Features. 

Ph 

OQ 

0) 

> 

'p 

O 

Weeds. 

Forest sp. 

Marsh. 

Littoral. 

Marine. 

Epiphytic. 

Parasitic or 

Saprophytic. 

Total, 






Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 















America, Africa, Asia, Australia, Poly- 










70 

14 

5 

2 

49 

nesia 

12 

16 

6 

6 

12 

8 

2 

8 

70 






In tropics of both Hemispheres, but 















hardly cosmopolitan. 










3 

1 

1 


1 

America, Africa, Asia, Australia 



... 


2 



1 

3 

2 




2 

America, Africa, Asia, Polynesia 


... 




1 


1 

2 

3 

1 

1 


1 

America, Africa, Asia 


... 

*”2 





1 

3 

2 




2 

America, Asia 








2 

2 






Widely distributed in Eastern Hemi¬ 















spheres ; not in America. 










29 

7 

13 

4 

5 

Africa, Asia, Australia, Polynesia 



2 


26 


1 


29 

12 

1 

3 

3 

5 

Africa, Asia, Australia 



3 

3 

5 

1 



12 

2 


1 


1 

Africa, Asia, Polynesia ... 





1 


"i 


2 

6 

i 

1 

2 

2 

Africa, Asia ... 



""2 

i 

2 

"i 


... 

6 






Confined to Asia and Australasia. 










15 

2 

2 

3 

8 

Asia, Australia, Polynesia 





10 

1 

3 

1 

15 

23 

8 

7 

6 

2 

Asia, Australia 



'16 


6 


1 


23 

3 


1 

• . . 

2 

Asia, Polynesia 



2 




1 


3 

188 

43 

59 

28 

58 

SoutF-Eastern Asia only ... 

3 

2 

129 

4 

16 

7 

12 

15 

188 

358 

78 

94 

48 

138 

Totals 

15 

18 

162 

14 

80 

19 

21 

29 

358 


In discussing tlie phytogeographic distribution of these species 
within the province of South-Eastern Asia it is necessary to distinguish 
between the districts forming the Western section, viz .:—the lower 
Himalayan slopes with the plains at their foot, Peninsular India, and 
Ceylon—fi’omthe Eastern section, which comprises Southern China, Indo- 
China, Malaya, including the Philippines, New Guinea, and the coasts of 
Northern or Tropical Australia. Of the 358 species in the Coco Islands, 
which therefore necessarily all occur in the Eastern section, 252 species, 
or 70 per cent., are found in the Western section as well. Of the whole 
number 153 species, or 43 per cent., extend to Australia, whereas only 
140, or 39 per cent., are known to occur in South China. 

The following tables indicate the distribution of the species so far 
as these three portions of S. E. Asia are concerned. 

170 

































361 


Table VIII. Distribution in S. E. Asia of the species extending from the 


Coco-group to Cis-gangetic India. 

In all three Cis-gangetio districts (Himalaya, India, Ceylon) :—. 134 

In China, Indo-China, Malaya, Australia. 72 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia . 9 

In China, Indo-China, Malaya. 26 

In Indo-China, Malaya. 24 

In China, Indo-China, Andamans . 1 

In Indo-China, Andamans . 2 

In Himalaya and India; .... 14 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia . 1 

In China, Indo-China, Malaya. ] 

In Indo-China, Malaya. 7 

In China, Indo-China, Andamans . 1 

In Indo-China, Andamans . 3 

In Andamans . i 

In India and Ceylon :—....... 70 

In China, Indo-China, Malaya, Australia. 33 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia . 21 

In Indo-China, Malaya. 15 

In Indo-China, Andamans . 1 

In Andamans, Malaya, Australia. 3 

In Andamans, Malaya. 3 

In Himalaya ;—... 5 

In China, Indo-China, Malaya .. 1 

In Indo-China, Malaya .. 2 

In Indo-China, Andamans . 2 

In India :—.. ...... I 3 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia .... 1 

In China, Indo-China, Malaya .. ] 

In Indo-China, Malaya. 3 

In Indo-China, Andamans . 3 

In Andamans, Malaya, Australia... 2 

In Andamans ..... .. 3 

In Ceylon :— ... 10 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia .. 1 

In Indo, China, Malaya... 0 

In Andamans, Malaya .... 2 

In Andamans ..... ] 


Total number of species extending from the Coco Group to Cis-gangetic India 252 

Table IX. Distribution in S. E. Asia of the species extending from 
the Coco Group to China. 


Extending as far as Australia :— ... 106 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia; Himalaya, India, Ceylon . 72 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia ; India, Ceylon . 33 

In Indo-China, Malaya, Australia . 1 

Extending as far as Malaya ;— . 3 I 

In Indo-China, Malaya; Himalaya, India, Gexjlon . 26 

In Indo-China, Malaya; .ffimaiai/a, India .. 1 

In Indo-China, Malaya; Himalaya . 1 

In Indo-China, Malaya . 3 


171 


























































362 


Extending as far as the Andamans only :— ... 

In Indo-China, Andamans; Himalaya, India, Ceylon 

In Indo-China, Andamans; Himalaya, India . 

In Indo-China, Andamans; India ... 

Total number of species extending from the Coco Group to China ... 140 

Table X. Distribution in S. E. Asia of the species extending from 
the Coco Group to Australia. 


Extending as far as China ; —. 106 

To Malaya, Indo-China, China; Himalaya, India, Ceylon . 72 

To Malaya, Indo-China, China; India, Ceylon . 33 

To Malaya, Indo-China, China . 1 

Extending as far as Indo-China : —... 38 

To Malaya, Indo-China; Himalaya, India, Ceylon . 9 

To Malaya, Indo-China ; Himalaya, India . 1 

To Malaya, Indo-China; India, Ceylon . 21 

To Malaya, Indo-China; India . 1 

To Malaya, Indo-China ; Ceylon . 2 

To Malaya, Indo-China. 4 


9 

3i 


Total number of species extending from the Coco Group to Australia ... 153 

The analysis of these species thus shows that the figures do not 
indicate any special connection either with China, with India, or with 
Australia ; many of the species in these tables are cosmopolitan or nearly 
so, and thus possess no special phytogeographical interest. The number of 
species that extend from India, Ceylon or the Himalaya to the Andamans 
and no further, is only 23, or per cent, of the whole flora; this figure, 
therefore, more nearly represents what may be considered the peculiarly 
Indian element in the Flora of the Andamans. There are only three 
species that extend from South China to the Andamans and no further 
southwards, and as all three are found in India and may as readily be 
extensions from India to China as from China to India we may assert 
that there is no distinctive Chinese feature in the flora at all. Only 
9 species extend upwards from Australia as far as the Andamans, but not 
as far as Indo-China; but all these are characteristic Malayan species 
and may just as well be considered extensions from Malaya to Australia 
as from Australia through Malaya to the Coco Islands. The occurrence 
of as many as 10 of the species in Ceylon and not in India would seem at 
first to indicate that there is some foundation for a remark by Mr. 
Kurz, already alluded to in connection with the vegetation of Diamond 
Island (/. A. S. B. lix, pt. 2, p. 290), concerning the presence of a Ceylon 
172 


Extending as far as tbe Coco Group (Andamans) only :— 

To Malaya, Andamans ; Ceylon, India ...... 

To Malaya, Andamans; Ceylon ... 

To Malaya, Andamans ; India . 

To Malaya, Andamans ... 

























363 


element in the Andamans flora. Bat a consideration of that section of 
Table VIII in which they are detailed shows that they afford little cor¬ 
roboration of this hypothesis for there is only one species {Bedoelea flabel- 
lum) restricted to the Andamans and Ceylon, and as this in a. Cryptogam, 
too great a reliance ought not to be placed on the fact; Indian Crypto¬ 
gams, other than ferns, have not as yet been assiduously collected and the 
occurrence here of this Ceylon species perhaps indicates rather a wide 
dispersion for it than any peculiar affinity of the flora of the group with 
that of Ceylon. 

The general conelusion to which we are led by the evidence these 
tables afford is, that the flora of the Coco Group is almost purely Trans- 
gangetic, and that while this is the case there is no appreeiable Chinese 
or Australian element present. We have still to ascertain whether it is 
an Indo-Chinese or a Malayan element that prevails in the flora, and 
to what extent any independent element exists. 

From their geographical position we have to look upon the Coco 
Islands as part of the Andaman Group : in one sense therefore all the 
Coco Island species are Andamanese. But there are as many as 30 of 
the species in the list,* * * § or about 8 per cent, of the flora, whose presence 
in tli.e Andamans is due only to their having been found in the Coco 
Group. At the same time, however, it must be remembered that 19 
species, or over 5 per cent, of the flora, are peculiar to the Andamans as 
a whole, not occurring either in Indo-China or in Malaya, while 24 
more are only known as Indo-Chinese from their presence in Tenasserim.f 
Of these 24 Andamans-Tenasserim species, 22, or 6 per cent, of the flora, 
are confined to these two districts, only two of them extending even as 
far as the Malay Peninsula. The bearing of this peculiar distribution in 
tlie Andamans and in Tenasserim, but neither northward to Indo-China 
nor southward to Malaya, the writer has already had occasion to note 
it will be referred to again below in connection with the probable orio-in 
of the Coco Island flora. Another circumstance that must be borne in 
mind is that as yet very little is known of the flora of North Andaman, 
and it is not improbable that some of the 30 Non-Andaman Coco species 
will yet be found to occur in that island.§ 

* Indicated in the list of distribation by [] brackets in the Andamans column. 

t Indicated by [] brackets in the Indo-Chinese column. 

J Ann. Boy. Bot. Garden, vol. iii, p. 238. 

§ As an example of this possibility may be instanced Bendrocalamus Strictus 
which does not occur in South Andaman. Mr, Godwin-Austen, formerly of Port 
Blair, one of the very few officers who have ascended Saddle Peak, the highest 
point of North Andaman, has informed the writer that at one point in the ascent a 
Bamboo is met with quite different h'om the Bamboos near Port Blair ; not very 

173 


364 


Of the 368 species, 232, making 65 per cent, of the whole, occur at 
once in Indo-China, Malaya and the Andamans; 40 occur in Malaya and 
the Andamans, 8 of these extending to Tenasserim but not occurring in 
Burma or Siam (Indo-China proper) ; 22 occur in Indo-Ohina but not in 
Malaya, 12 of them being present in the Andamans also; 40 occur in 
the Andamans without appearing either in Indo-China or in Malaya, 
though 8 of these appear in Tenasserim, which connects Indo-China with 
the Malay Peninsula, just as the Andamans connect Indo-China with the 
Malay Archipelago ; 8 occur only in the Coco Islands and Tenasserim, 
and 13 are apparently confined to the Coco group. This last number is 
probably too high ; some of these species, as well as some of those others 
for which the Coco locality is as yet the only record from the Andamans, 
may occur in North Andaman. 

The following table gives the distribution of the species in these 
three districts as well as in the sub-district of Tenasserim : — 


Table XII. DistribiUion of Goco Island species in the Indo-Chinese and 

Malayan districts. 


A. 

Species extending from Coco Group to :— 

Indo-China, Tenasserim, Andamans, Jfalaya, 

Indo-China, Tenasserim, -- ■ Malaya, 

-, Tenasserim, Andamans, Malaya, 

-, Tenasserim,-, Malaya, 

-,-, Andamans, Malaya, 

Indo-China,-, Andamans,-, 

-, Tenasserim, Andamans,-, 

Indo-China,-,-, -, 

---, Tenasserim,-, , 

--,-, Andamans, , 


232 

2 

8 

1 

32 

12 

8 

10 

8 

32 


Total species extending from Coco Group ... 345 

Species confined to Coco Group ... ... ... 13 


Total Coco Island species ... 358 



No. of species. ' 

percentage of flora. 

B. 



Species occurring in :— 



Indo-China 

256 

71 

Tenasserim 

259 

72 

Andamans 

324 

90 

Malaya 

275 

76 

Species confined to Coco Group 

13 



This table therefore leads to the conclusion that phy togeographically 


tall, but extremely hard and tough, and forming dense thickets very difficult to pass 
through—a general description agreeing very well with that of Dendrocalamus strictus 
as it occurs in Great Coco. 

174 





























365 


as well as physiographically the Coco Group forms an integral part of the 
Andamans. Further, it shows that of the possibly predominating elements 
in their flora, the Indo-Chinese element, as a whole, is slightly weaker 
even in that part of the Andamans nearest to Burma than is an element 
indicating a Tenasserim influence and an element indicating a Malayan 
influence. This seems strange when we recollect that not only do the 
Cocos form that part of the Andamans nearest to Burma but that there is a 
shallow ridge, at times raised into islands, along the line between the 
Cocos and the nearest point on the Burmese mainland, whereas Tenas¬ 
serim is at the opposite side of a deep sea, while Malaya is separated from 
the opposite extremity of the Andaman group by a much greater distance 
and by much deeper straits than Burma is from the area under discussion. 

In order, if possible, to account for this peculiarity of distribution, it 
becomes necessary to discuss the probable origin of the flora of the group. 

The first step in such an inquiry is to ascertain the species in a flora 
that may possibly have been introduced and that do not therefore 
necessarily postulate for an isolated locality such as the Cocos any former 
connection with neighboui’ing land. It is, of coui’se, evident that if a 
previous land connection be shewn to be necessary to explain the pre¬ 
sence of any species in the islands this same land connection would 
sufldciently explain the presence of most of the species that occur there 
without requiring the suggestion of any extraneous means of introduc¬ 
tion. But until all the possibilities of introduction by means of physical 
agencies now at work under existing physiographical conditions are com¬ 
pletely exhausted, we are not at liberty to assume the existence of dis¬ 
similar physiographical conditions or a different application of the present 
physical agencies. 

There is, however, always great difiiculty in deciding absolutely 
what species are indigenous and what species are introduced in any 
locality, and here no species will be considered “indigenous” for which it 
is possible to suggest in the remotest fashion any means of introduction. 
At the risk therefore of including among introduced species many that 
are probably quite entitled to be termed indigenous, the possibilities are 
discussed under the headings of the various active introducing agencies. 
As this involves a use of the terms “ indigenous ” and “ introduced ” 
somewhat different from the sense in which they are generally accepted, 
it seems better that the possibly introduced species be spoken of as 
“migrant”; and the certainly indigenous residuary species termed 
“ remanent,” many of the “ migrant ” species being doubtless perfectly 
“ indigenous ” in the generally received sense. 

Even within the group of “ migrant ” species difficulties often arise 
owino- to certain species being assisted in one way from island to island 
° 175 


366 


over intervening seas and in another way along continuous land. As an 
example may be mentioned Gyrooarpus Jacyuinii, whose progress from 
island to island is clearly a sea-assisted process, yet whose dispersal inland 
when it is once established is greatly aided by wind because of its curious 
dipteroid fruit. It might even be suggested that the wings of this fruit 
may be sufficient to account for its transmission across intervening seas ; 
but no one who has carefully observed the fall of its fruits is likely to 
consider this possible. Another very pertinent instance is Terminalia 
Gatappa, a species distributed by ocean currents over all the coasts of 
the Andaman Sea, but which nevertheless occurs far inland as well as on 
the beaches. The explanation of its inland dispersal is extremely simple, 
for rats and frugivorous bats are extremely fond of the fleshy part of its 
fruits while they leave uninjured the stone and kernel. Both these 
animals are apt when disturbed while eating to carry off in their mouths 
the fruit they may be devouring, ultimately dropping it some distance 
from the place where the parent tree grew. But though bats occur in far 
off lonely islands like Batti Malv and Barren Island, and though their 
presence there indicates the possibility that animals of the kind may, like 
fruit-eating birds, carry undigested seeds from one island to another, it 
is clear, since they do not swallow the stones of Terminalia Gatappa that 
they are not to be held respossible for the passage of that species across 
intervening seas. The further spread of these species within new locali¬ 
ties by agencies quite distinct from that necessary to account for their 
initial appearance is, it will be admitted, amply demonstrated.* Other 
examples are Pisonia aouleata and excelsa which are perhaps introduced 
by the sea along these coasts. If they are, however, it is quite certain 
that their presence inland may be amply accounted for owing to their 
sticky fruits having become attached to birds or animals that have come 
in contact with them.f 

* Residents in India are familiar with the treatment of “country-almonds” by 
the large flying-foxes; fruits carried off by them, and with a portion bitten out of 
the fleshy side, may be constantly found dropped at considerable distances from the 
trees on which the almonds grew In Barren Island there is no doubt that the 
frugivorous bats which exist there are partly responsible for the same thing, and the 
writer had an opportunity of witnessing the rats, which abound on that island, engaged 
in the same act, these creatures having come down to the shore for the fruits that 
are common there and when disturbed scampering off up gullies with fruits in their 
mouths. 

f A striking instance of the possibility of their becoming attached to the bodies 
of passing animals was witnessed by the writer on a path between Rangachang and 
Ali Musjid in South Andaman in April 1891. Though some miles from the sea a 
considerable number of Pisonia excelsa trees occurred at the place, and the path 
was strewn with their fruits. A tree-snake was seen which had become entangled 
in a fallen panicle of these so that all escape was impossible, its every movement in- 

176 


.367 


Aud in addition to these instances it may be remarked that the 
whole group of species which may possibly have been introduced in the 
crops of grain-eating birds can be only considered as indirectly bird- 
introduced, since some accident must have happened to account for the 
death of the introducing bird in order to explain the germination of the 
seed and final introduction of the plant. 

The “migrant” species, meaning thereby all that have certainly 
been introduced and all for which introduction is conceivable, may be 
divided into “civilized” species introduced by man, and “ sylvestrian ” 
or wild species. The wild species may be divided into “coast” 
species, further subdivided into “ marine ” and “ littoral ” species, the 
whole of the coast species being sea-introduced; and into “ inland ” 
species. These latter, which may of course also occur on the shore, but 
for the introduction of which the sea has not been responsible, may 
best be classed as “ wind-introduced ” and as “ bird-introduced ” species 
Species introduced by birds may have been introduced either attached, 
to the bodies of these or carried in their crops. These different groups 
will be discussed in detail; last of all the “remanent” species will be 
considered. 

The “civilized” species comprise cultivated plants and weeds of 
cultivation or of waste places; the former corresponding practically to 
domestic animals like the cow or horse, and to domestic insects like the 
bee or silk-worm, the latter to the vermin that associate themselves with, 
or accompany man and his domestic creatures. This group therefore 
contains the species that may, directly as economic or aesthetic plants, 
or indirectly as weeds, have been introduced by man. The list subjoined 
includes the whole of the species present in the islands that are known 
to be sometimes thus introduced; those that are likely to be here in¬ 
digenous, or to have been introduced by other than human agency, are 
enclosed within brackets and will be found again in one or, at times, more 
than one of the subsequent lists. 

List of Civilized species found in the Coco Group. 

* Nymphsea rubra. This variety has perhaps been introduced 

intentionally into Great Coco, where 
it occurs in the small lake. It has 
to be recollected that it is a favourite 
flower with the Burmese and is sold 
for votive purposes in the Pagodas 

volving it more hopelessly in the tangled sticky mass. After the snake died its body 
was carefully examined and it was found that it had suffered no previous physical 
injury which could account for its inability to escape. 

J77 


368 


Sida carpinifolia. 
[Urena lobata. 


* Hibiscus Sabdariffa 

5. * Hibiscus Abelmoscbus. 

* Moringa pterygosperma. 

* Crotalaria sericea. 


* Desmodium triflorum. 

* Alysicarpus vaginalis. 
10. * Phaseolus sp. 


about Rangoon; also that the settle¬ 
ment was attempted by a Rangoon 
gentleman whose servants were, at 
least partly, Burmese. But typical 
white Nymphsea Lotus occurs in Little 
Coco, clearly independently of human 
agency. 

Table Island (the older clearing) only. 

As a rule this species would, without 
hesitation, be dealt with as a weed ; in 
Great Coco, however, it does not occur 
iu the clearing and it was not found 
on Table Island at all. If introduced 
here, we may safely say that human 
agency is not responsible for its ap¬ 
pearance ; more probably it has been 
introduced by the agency of birds]. 

Great Coco ; in the old garden and evi¬ 
dently struggling against extinction. 

Table Island only ; but common in many 
parts of the clearing. 

Great Coco; a few trees evidently plant¬ 
ed ; these are very healthy, and seed¬ 
lings are already springing up under 
the adjacent Coco-nut trees. 

Table Island only ; but very abundant; 
the species may have been uninten¬ 
tionally introduced, but more probably 
has been brought by the servants at 
the light-house, who are Burmans and 
with whom the flower is a favourite. 

Table Island only ; common however on 
all the grassy slopes. 

Great Coco; not seen on Table Island, 
though it probably occurs there. 

Seedlings in cow-dung on one grassy 
slope at south-west corner of island. 
These were seen in 1890; no species 
was seen in 1889 likely to have given 
origin to these and there is no indi¬ 
genous species to which it seems likely 
they could belong. Unfortunately 


178 


369 


neither clearing could be revisited in 
1890 to enable the writer to make 
further investigation. 

Great Coco; only one tree and that, 
though almost certainly introduced by 
man probably unintentionally so. 
Great Coco; perfectly naturalised and 
very profuse in the Coco-nut zone, 
especiallyinthe north end of the island. 
Both islands ; extremely abundant in the 
clearings, but also plentiful on grassy 
slopes and bare rocky headlands of the 
western coast of Great Coco ; it also 
occui’s on Rutland Island, at the op¬ 
posite extremity of the Andaman group, 
where introduction by man is hardly 
conceivable : here probably it owes its 
presence to the agency of wind.] 

[Adenostemma viscosum. Great Coco ; common on bare rocky pro¬ 
montories on west side and at north 
end of island. If introduced here it 
has been introduced independently of 
human agency ; it is probably a sea- 
introduced species, but perhaps its 
fruits may have come attached to the 
feathers of birds.] 

15. * Ageratum conyzoides. Table Island ; common in the clearing; 

not present in Great Coco. 

* Ipomeea coccinea. Table Island ; a garden escape, but very 

plentiful on the edges of jungle-paths 
far from the lighthouse garden. 

* Ipomeea Batatas. Table Island ; cultivated only: has not 

survived on Great Coco, probably 
owing to the presence of wild pigs. 
These the writer did not see on Great 
Coco but their traces were abundant 
on Table Island and the pigs them¬ 
selves were obtained on Little Coco. 
Moreover, Mr. Hume {Stray Feathers^ 
ii, p. Ill) actually met with them on 
Great Coco. During our visits 5 or 
6 abandoned painah dogs were seen 

179 


* Tamarindus indica. 


* Carica Papaya. 
[Vernonia cinerea. 


S70 


* Solanum Melongena. 


* Capsicum minimum. 


20. * Scoparia dulcis. 

* Rungia pectinata. 


[Anisomele.s ovata. 


[Boerhaavia repens. 


on the island ; but, though these must 
necessarily have rendered the pigs 
shy, it can hardly be supposed that 
they have exterminated them. 

Table Island ; cultivated. Great Coco ; in 
the old garden and also plentiful all 
over the clearing ; apparently quite 
naturalised. 

Table Island ; cultivated, and as an es¬ 
cape. Great Coco ; very plentiful and 
spreading far into the jungle. 

Both islands ; common in the clearings. 

Table Island ; only in the clearing; not 
plentiful and as it is not met with in 
Great Coco is probably here, as it 
often is, an introduced weed. But it 
need not always be so since the species 
is abundant on bare rocky promon¬ 
tories at the south end of Rutland 
Island where introduction by human 
agency is not to be thought of. 

Great Coco ; this species is not present 
on Table Island apparently, and on 
Great Coco it was only found on the 
isthmus connecting the north-eastern 
peninsula—where the clearing is—with 
the main island. But the species does 
not occur in the clearing, and it is re¬ 
markably abundant where it occurs. 
Moreover it is exceedingly abundant in 
Diamond Island, off the Arracan Coast, 
which is another section of the same 
island chain; the writer is therefore 
inclined to believe that the species 
does not owe its introduction to hu¬ 
man agency but that it may be classed 
among the remanent species.] 

In all tlu’ee islands, common on rocky 
promontories and bare isolated rocks 
though a frequent weed of cultivation 
this owes its presence here, not to 
human influence, but to the agency of 


180 


371 


* Celosia cristata. 

25. * Acbyranthes aspera. 


* Gomphrena globosa. 
^Euphorbia pilulifera. 

* Musa sapientum. 


* Cocos nucifei’a. 


30. * Kyllinga brevifolia. 

* Fimbristylis dipbylla. 


the sea or to that of littoral birds, such 
as the Bitterns and Terns that frequent 
the reefs and rocks, its sticky fruits 
probably attaching themselves to the 
feet of these.] 

Table Island, a common escape. 

Both islands, common in the clearings 
and undoubtedly introduced by man. 
But on Little Coco, the very distinct 
VAR. porphyristachya is abundant as a 
climber in the Pandanus sea-fence and 
is probably, like the same variety in 
the Nicobars, Laccadives, etc., a plant 
introduced by the sea. 

Table Island, an abundant escape. 

Table Island, a weed in the clearing, 
still rare. 

There is a Plantain-garden attached to 
the lighthouse on Table Island. No 
Plantains are left on Great Coco, doubt¬ 
less owing to the cattle. These ani¬ 
mals eat not only coco-nut leaves but 
also the leaves of Pandanus odoratis- 
simus, so that one is surprised to find 
that they have left anything in the 
garden at all. Except for the cattle (and 
perhaps the pigs, which might grout up 
the stocks) there is no reason why the 
Plantain should not thrive if left to 
itself. In Narcondam there is a grove 
of Plantains, introduced (by Col. Tyt- 
ler ?), in excellent health. 

Common in all three islands but deserv¬ 
ing neither to be deemed indigenous 
nor to be considered a species intro¬ 
duced by the sea. The question whe¬ 
ther its presence is due to some old 
attempt at settlement or to the ship¬ 
wreck of some coco-nut laden craft is 
discussed more fully below. 

Both islands, only in the clearings. 

Both islands, only in the cleai’ings. 

181 


372 


Great Coco; near south end of island 
beside some shelter huts used by 
coco-nut collectors. 

Both islands, in the clearings and also 
at south end of Great Coco near the 
shelter huts. 

Table Island, in the clearing. 

Table Island, clearing, common ; Great 
Coco, rare in the clearing, also a few 
tufts among droppings of cattle on 
a bare hill at south-west corner of 
the island. 

Table Island ; lighthouse clearing, still 
rare. [All the Cyperaceos and Gra~ 
mineoe may have been introduced by 
birds.] 

Of the above, nineteen are species which are, or may be, cultivated 
for economic or aesthetic reasons—the economic plants being Hibiscus 
Sahdariffa (the Rozelle), Hibiscus Ahelmoschus (the Musk-mallow), iRorw- 
ga pterygosperma (the Horse-Radish tree), Phaseolus sp., Tamarindus 
indica (the Tamarind), Carica Papaya (the Papaw), Ipomoea Batatas 
(the Sweet- Potato), Solanum Melongena (the Bringal), Capsicum mini- 
mtim (the Bird’s-Eye Chillee), Musa sapientum (the Plantain), Cocos 
fnucifera (the Coco-nut) ,/PawC'Mm ciliare, colonum and Helopus (three 
' wild fodder-millets). ) Ten of these have undoubtedly been intentionally 
introduced—one Cthe Tamarind) certainly has not, and the three fodder 
grasses may have come as weeds, or equally probably, may have been 
inti-oduced by grain-eating birds. The aesthetic plants are Nymphoca rubra, 
Crotalaria serieea, Ipomcea coccinea, Gelosia cristata, and Gomphrena glo- 
bnsa. Crotalaria serieea may have been involuntarily introduced, the 
others almost certainly have been brought intentionally. The other 
seventeen are, or may be, weeds, but there is every probability that five 
of them, Urena lobata, Vernonia cinerea, Adenostemma visocosum, Aniso- 
meles ovata, and Boerhaavia repens do not owe their presence here to 
human agency. 

Of the introduced economic species three are evidently unfitted to 
survive under the conditions to which, when abandoned, they are exposed. 
The Rozelle succumbs to climatic influences, the Sweet-Potato and the 
Plantain are destroyed by animals. On the other hand the propagation 
of two of these species — the Papaya and the Bird’s-Eye Chillee—is re¬ 
markable both for its extent and rapidity, and for the fact that the 
flavour and pungency of the fruit of these species remains undimi¬ 
nished. 

182 


* Panicura ciliare. 


Panicum colonum. 


* Panicum Helopus. 
.S.'S. * Eleusine indica. 


* Eleusine regyptiaca. 


373 


The Coco-nut tree deserves to be specially noticed. It is not 
known where Cocos nucifera is “ indigenous ” and the suggestion that it 
is “ really wild ” on the Coco Islands and along the north-western coast 
of North Andaman, made by the late Mr. Kurz, {Forest Flora of British 
Burma ii, 540), though true enough so far as the Coco Islands are con¬ 
cerned, is denied, as regards North Andaman, by those officers at Port 
Blair who have had opportunities of investigating the shores of the group. 
Mr. Kurz did not himself visit either the Coco group or North Andaman, 
and unfortunately he does not give any authority for the latter part of 
his statement. But, granting its correctness, the fact remains that about 
Poi’t Blair the tree only occurs as a recent inti’oduction and it is not 
met with elsewhere either in South on Middle Andaman, except as a few 
young trees that have, on Rutland Island, the Sentinels, etc., been deli¬ 
berately planted. More recently^ the writer has been told of a bay in 
one of the islands of the “ Archipelago,” near Port Blair, which is lined 
with Coco-nut trees, the result of the wreck of a particular craft that was 
lost on her way from the Nicobars to a Burmese port; this statement 
the writer has not yet been able personally to verify. In Narcondam 
there are Coco-nut trees in no fewer than three places, and as there is 
absolutely nothing to disturb them there, they are spreading rapidly. In 
Barren Island also there is one bay where a considerable number 
of Coco-nut trees grow and where also the species is rapidly spread¬ 
ing. But in both these islands the introduction has been deliberate 
and quite recent; this in Narcondam is particularly evident from the 
fact that the oldest trees occur along with a grove of Plantains, though it 
is equally apparent that the spread of the species to one, and probably 
to both, of the two other bays where it occurs, has been unassisted by man 
and is due to fallen nuts having been drifted round from the first plant¬ 
ed trees. It is, however, very remarkable that Cocos nucifera should be 
so abundant in the Coco group and be absent from, or very rare in, the 
Andamans proper, including Little Andaman, and that the species should 
again occur in such abundance in the Nicobars. The direction of the 
ocean currents has been suggested as possibly explaining the fact, but 
with very unsatisfactory results, because, whatever be the theoretical 
direction assumed for these currents in oi’der to explain the distribution 
of Cocos nucifera, it must fail to coincide with the direction postulated 
to explain the distribution of Casuarina equisetifoUa, a tree which is 
extremely common in the Nicobars and is so plentiful in Little 
Andaman, where there are no Coco-nuts, that the English equivalent 
for the Andamanese name of the island is “ Casuarina-sand,” the name 
taking its origin from the great prevalence of this species on all its 
beaches But though there are no Coco-nut trees in the Andaman group 

183 


374 


proper, there is one place where Casuarina equisetifoUa occurs. This 
is a small bay, Casuarina Bay, on the west coast of North Andaman, 
on the beach of which the species is plentiful. In the Coco group, where 
there are Coco-nut trees, there is no Casuarina equisetifoUa though it 
occurs again in Arracan and Chittagong where there are no Coco-nuts. 
As a matter of fact there is a steady current northward along the west 
coast of the Andamans for a considerable period of the year and it is dif¬ 
ficult to understand why both Cocos and Casuarina do not occur plenti¬ 
fully along the whole west coast of the Andaman chain. The writer’s 
examination of the ocean-drifts of the Coco group during his two visits 
did not throw much light on the subject. Wreckage in considerable 
quantity is to be found along the whole of the coasts, in most cases, how¬ 
ever, belonging to wrecks that have occurred on the spot; the disposi¬ 
tion of the fragments therefore only throws light on the “ set ” of local 
currents. Among the exceptions to this wei’e a dressed teak-log on the 
east side of Great Coco, a padouk-log on the east side of Jerry Island, a 
quantity of Burmese sea-fishing-gear on the eyot between Great Coco 
and Jerry, fragments of two different Andamanese canoes on the east 
coast of Great Coco, a clump with roots of a very large Bamboo (not 
improbably Bambiisa gigantea) on the west side of Great Coco, part of a 
third Andamanese canoe on the east side of the Little Coco, and a fruit, 
with part of stalk, of Nipa frutieavs at the south end of Little Coco. 
Except the Andamanese canoes the whole of these objects indicated a 
“set” of ocean-current from Burma, for though Nipa fruticans which, 
strangel}^ appears to be absent from the Cocos, is both a Burmese and 
an Andamans species, this particular fruit had its stalk cut cleanly off 
by some sharp implement, and if it came from the Andamans it must 
therefore have floated from the neighbourhood of the settlement at Port 
Blair, a sufficiently improbable circumstance, as the examination of a 
map of the Andaman sea will show. Now if the set of the currents is 
such as to bring “drift” from Burma, and if these currents have 
brought the Coco-nut tree originally to the islands, we must explain how 
it happens that the islands of the “ Archipelago ” near port Blair, on the 
shores of which an undoubtedly Burmese “ drift ”, in the shape of teak- 
logs, etc., is very plentiful, do not have Coco-nut trees on all their 
coasts. It has been suggested that the ocean-currents have thrown 
up Coco-nuts on the shores of the Andamans as well as on those of the 
Cocos, but that owing to the presence of the aboriginal inhabitants, 
always on the outlook for what they may pick up on the shore, the 
establishment of the species in the larger group has been impossible 
because any nut thrown up is found by them and immediately eaten or 
destroyed. This suggestion the writer owes to Mr. M. V. Portman of 


184 


>375 

Port Blair; it remains nevertheless difficult to understand why not a 
single Coco-nut should have escaped the notice of the Andamanese— 
who after all are not a numerous race—while, as it happens, we have 
Mr. Kurz’s positive statement that in certain parts of North Andaman 
the species docs occur. 

It seems to the winter that for this particular group of islands, 
although the spread of the Coco-nuts within the group is undoubtedly 
due to the agency of the sea, the ocean-current theory does not explain 
the presence of the species, and that the original introduction has more 
probably been due to human interference. The question remains whether 
this was voluntary or involuntary. It may have been the result of an 
attempt at settlement in the island. The most recent attempt, which 
dates from 1878, is not the only one on record. An earlier attempt, as 
unsuccessful as the last, was made in 1849. But it does not follow, 
though these are the only attempts known, that they are the only ones 
which have been made. Both were made entirely on account of the 
Coco-nut being present in the islands, as perhaps other attempts before 
them may have been, for it appears that the name Coco Islands, implying 
the establishment there of Coco nucifera and the knowledge of that 
fact by navigators, dates from some of the very earliest European visits 
to Eastern seas. But it is not impossible that a yet earlier attempt to 
settle here may have been made and that the introduction of the Coco¬ 
nut may have been one of its results. It is easy to undei’stand that 
these islands should have been chosen in preference to the more inviting- 
looking Andaman group owing to the character for ferocity which, for 
some curious reason, was attributed to the inhabitants of the Andamans 
by eaidy navigators, and it is as easy to understand that the adverse 
natural conditions which prevail, and which have caused the failure of 
all recent attempts at settlement, must soon have led to the abandonment 
of the earliest attempt. The writer feels inclined to think that this may 
be the true explanation of the presence of Coco nucifera in the Cocos 
Islands. Bnt it may quite as readily have been due to involuntary in¬ 
troduction by ship-wreck ; for while disinclined to accept the suggestion 
that there ai'e no Coco-nut trees in the Andamans because the Anda¬ 
manese have eaten all the stranded Coco-nuts, when it is applied to nuts 
thrown up by ocean-currents, the writer thinks this explanation may well 
enough account for the presence of Coco-nut trees in the Cocos while 
they are absent from the main islands, if introduction by reason of ship¬ 
wreck is postulated. In the Cocos there are no inhabitants, while in the 
main islands there are ; and though it is scarcely reasonable to suppose 
that the Andamanese would detect every nut that is cast -up on the 
beach, there is little doubt that they would soon become aware of the 

185 


376 


wreck of a Coco-nut craft and, becoming aware of it, there is as little 
doubt that they would soon consume every Coco-nut the vessel contained. 

Now that the Coco-nut tree is established in the islands, it germin¬ 
ates profusely. Even towards the centre of the island on flat or muddy 
tracts one meets with groves, containing from a score to several 
hundreds of trees, that have originated from nuts which have been 
floated inland by unusually high tides and left stranded far from the 
coast. The stems of these inland examples are abnormally tall, shoot¬ 
ing up till the leafy head rises above the surrounding jungle ; as far as 
can be seen, they do not flower till this happens. Once they have 
flowered and fruited the fallen nuts multiply the species fifty-fold. 
The nut appears to have but few enemies, and though a good many may 
be seen with a hole drilled through the husk and with the kernel 
scooped out, (apparently both crabs and rats are able to effect this,) the 
number thus destroyed forms quite an inappreciable proportion of the 
whole. The ti’ee does not, however, invade the ridges, the soil is doubt¬ 
less, as it is in South Andaman, too poor to suit it; while in trees 
growing along the bays on the west side of Great Coco the contents of 
the nut are distinctly less and their quality is appreciably poorer than 
in trees at the head of the bays on the opposite side ; these in turn 
produce nuts that do not bear comparison with the magniflceut ex¬ 
amples grown in the Nicobars. 

In the subjoined table the distribution of the “ civilized ” species is 
given ; in those cases where the species is believed to be truly indigenous 
in a particular area the distribution mark indicating the area in question 
is enclosed within ( ) brackets. From this table we learn that 28 of 
these species, or 80 per cent, of the whole, are cosmopolitan in the 
tropics, and that, with the exception of one weed and two cultivated 
species, which do not occur in the Orient, they are sub-tropical as well 
as tropical species. The original home of about one-half of the species 
is known with some degree of certainty and it is interesting to note 
that 7, or 20 per cent, of the class, are originally natives of the New 
World, introduced in consequence of human intercourse into, and now 
established in, the Eastern Hemisphere as well. Ten of them are known 
to be natives of South-Eastern Asia; only six of these have spread 
beyond that area. 


186 


377 


Table XII. Distrihdion of “ Civilized ” species present in the Coco Group. 


Cultivated i 
species. ] 

Weeds. 

Species. 

Africa. 

Orient. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

1 


Nymphaea rubra 



X 

X 

X 

1 


1 

— 

1 

Sida carpinifoHa 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

1 

[Urena lobata] 



X 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Hibiscus Sabdariffa 



X 

X 

(x) 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Hibiscus Abelmoschus 



X 

X 

(x) 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Moringa pterygosperma 



X 

X 

fx) 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Crotalaria sericea ... 



— 

_ 

( X) 

_ 

_ 


— 

1 

Desmodium triflorum 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

1 

Alysicarpus vaginalis 

... 


X 

X 

(x) 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Phaseolus sp. 



? 

? 

X 

? 

? 

? 

1 

— 

Tamarindus indica ... 



(^) 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Carica Papaya 



X 


X 

X 

X 

(x) 

— 

1 

Vernonia cinerea ... 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


1 

Adenostemma viscosum 

• •• 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

1 

Ageratum conyzoides 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(x) 

1 

— 

Ipomoea coccinea 



X 

X ! 

X 

X 

X 

f X ) 

1 

— 

Ipomoea Batatas 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(x) 

1 

— 

Solanum Melongena 

... 


X 

X 

kx) 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Capsicum minimum 



— 

— 

1(X) 

— 

_ 


— 

1 

Scoparia dulcis 

... 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(X) 

— 

1 

Rungia pectinata 



— 

— 

(X) 

_ 

_ 


— 

1 

[Anisomeles ovata] 



— 

— 

(X) 

_ 

— 


— 

1 

[Boerhaavia repens] 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


1 

— 

Celosia cristata 



X 

X 

X 

— 

_ 

X 

— 

1 

Achyranthes aspera 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Gomphrena globosa 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(x) 

— 

1 

Euphorbia pilulifera 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Musa sapientum 



X 

— 

(X) 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

Cocos nuoifera 



X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

(x) 

_ 

1 

Kyllinga brevifolia ... 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

1 

Pimbristylis diphylla 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

[Panicum colonum]... 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

1 

Panicum ciliare 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

1 

— 

[Panicum Helopus] 



X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 

1 

Eleusine indica 

... 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

1 

Elensine aegyptiaoa 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


The only Cryptogam that belongs to this class is the incompletely 
known Fungus the mycelium of which has proved so destructive to the 
tea-crop at Port Blair. From what has been said in the account of this 
.species it will be seen that the species, whatever it may be, is certainly 
indigenous in, or at any rate has not been introduced by human agency 
into, the Andaman group. 

We have now to consider the “ sylvestrian ”, or truly wild, 
“ migrant ” species. These may be conveniently subdivided into 
“coast” and “inland” species—the former a group the members of 
which may, and here in most instances probably do, owe their presence 

187 


























378 


to introduction by means of ocean-currents. But just as we have seen 
that some of the weeds may be claimed as indigenous, or at all events as 
introduced by other than human agency, so here we find that these classes 
pass insensibly into each other and that species which may be introduced 
by the sea, such as Entada scandens, Gloriosa superha, Boerhaavia repens, 
Cocos nucifera, etc., may quite as reasonably owe their presence to a pre¬ 
vious land-connection, to wind, to birds, or to involuntary or voluntary 
human agency. The more doubtful instances, however, will be found 
discussed in detail below. This group of species, however, as a whole, 
is characterised by a general distribution which is directly affected by 
the physiographical features of, and the currents that prevail in, the 
surrounding seas, and is only indirectly, if at all, influenced by the con¬ 
figuration of the adjacent land. 

The “coast” species have to be further subdivided in “marine” 
and “ littoral ” species, and the former group, as comprising the plants 
for which the influence of ocean-currents is most evident, will be consi¬ 
dered first. Only one Phanerogam belongs to this class; this species, 
Gymodocea ciliata, is however almost the most plentiful, the only other 
common species being Sargassum ilicifolium ; all the others are very incon¬ 
spicuous, being few in number, small in size, and scantily represented. 

The following table gives at once a list of, and indicates the marine 
distribution for, these species; for six of them, as the general list shews, 
this is, as i*egards the Algce, only approximate. 


Table XIII. Distribution of the “ Marine ” species present in the Coco 

Group. 


Species. 

1 Atlantic. 1 

1 Indian Ocean. I 

1 Pacific. 1 

Species, 

Atlantic. | 

Jndian Ocean. I 

Pacific. 1 

Gymodocea ciliata 


X 


Gelidium corneum 

X 

X 

X 

Sar^assnra ilicifolium 

X 

X 

X 

Caulerpa clavifera 

X ■ 

’ X 

X 

Turbinaria ornata 

— 

X 

— 

Caulerpa plumaris 

- 

X 

— 

Padina pavonia 

X 

X 

X 

Valonia fastigiata 

— 

X 

X 

Dictyota dicliotoma 

X 

X 

X 

Valonia confervoides 

— 

X 

— 

Lithothamnion polymorphum ... 

X 

X 

-- 

Halimeda Opuntia 

X 

X 

X 

Acanthopbora Thierii 

X 

X 

X 

Sipboiiocladus ? filiformis 

— 

X 

— 

Jania tenella 

— 

X 

— 

Yaucheria sp. 

— 

X 

_ 

Gracilaria crassa 


X 


Calothi’ix pulvinata ... 

X 

X 

X 


Nearly one-half of the species are cosmopolitan in tropical seas; 
probably some of the six of which the distribution is not accurately 
ascertained are also cosmopolitan. One species appears to extend 
188 



















370 


only to the Pacific from the Indian Ocean, another only to the Atlantic 
from the Indian Ocean. The Cymodocea, though present in Africa, 
appeal’s not to be recorded from the Mascareue Islands, and Sargassuvi 
ilicifolium though occurring in Malayan Avaters, has not yet been found 
on the coasts of Northern Australia. One species, Dictyota dichotoma, 
is rather more frequent in sub-tropical than in tropical seas and is 
cosmopolitan in both the northern and the southern hemispheres. 

The next group of species to be considered—the “ littoral ”—in¬ 
cludes many plants for which the evidence of introduction by the sea is 
almost as palpable as in the case of the “ marine ” species themselves. 
They gei-minate on the beaches, and grow only near the sea, preferably 
in muddy creeks or on the sand or shingle ; their fruits and seeds are 
found in every “ drift ” and the species themselves occur on every Indian 
or Malayan coast. Such are the true mangroves and the species like 
Avicennia, AEgiceras, Garapa, that are constantly associated with the 
mangi’ove-vegetatiou ; the sand-binding species like Ipomoea biloba, 
Euphorbia Atoto, Sesxivimn Portulacastrum, Vigiia lutea, Thuarea sar- 
mentosa ; the tropical sesb-lence oi Pandanits odoratissimus, Desmodium 
^imhellatum, Sophora tomentosa, Tournefortia argentea, Glerodendron 
inerme, Vitex Negundo, with its concomitant climbing vegetation, Cana- 
valia obtnsifoUa, Ipoyncea digitata, Argyreia tilicefolia; the outer beach- 
forest of Terminalia Gatappa, Hernandia peltata, Erythrina indica, 
Stephegyne diversifoUa ; the inner beach forest of Cycas, Mimusops and 
Pisonia; and even the species of the mud-flats within, like Leea mm- 
bucina, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Cynometra ramiflora, Flagellaria indica and 
many more. The seeds of all these have been observed by the writer 
in the “ drifts ” of these islands and many of them have been noted, either 
in the Andamans and Nicobars, or in Narcondam, germinating on the 
beach. There are others, however, that are more doubtful, and, though 
the whole of the species for which this mode of introduction is con¬ 
ceivable are given below, the species for which any doubt is possible are 
enclosed in brackets and the more equivocal of these are discussed at 
the end of the list.* 

* Since this paper was written and while these pages have been passing through 
the press two papers have appeared that deal with this section of the flora of the 
Malayan countries much more fully than the scope of the present paper permits. 
To these papers, viz :—Schimper : Die Indo-Malayische Strandflora (Jena ; Gustav 
Fischer, 1891) and Karsten : TJeher die Mangrove-Vegetation in Malayischen Archipel ; 
Bibliotheca Botanica, Heft 22 (Cassel: Theodor Fischer, 1891) neither of which had 
appeared when the writer’s remarks were written and which he greatly regrets having 
been unable to refer to in the text, the writer would refer those who are interested 
in the subject of mangrove and coast plants and the influence of ocean-currents and 
their distribution. 


189 


380 


Table XIV. Distribution of B^ecieB present in the Coco Group. 


Species. 


Calophyllum inophyllnm .. 
Hibiscus tiliaoeus 
Thespesia populnea 
[Sterculia rubiginosa, rai'.] 

5. Heritiera littoralis 
Carapa moluccensis 
C ol ubri n a asiatica 
Leea sambucina 
[Leea liirtaj ... ... 

10. [Dodonaea viscosa 

[Dracontomelum mangifernm] 
nesmodium umbellatum... 
[Desmodiuni triquetrum] 
[Desmodium polycarpum] 

15. Erythrina indica 
Mncuna gigaiitea 
Canavalia obtusifolia 
Vigna lutea ... 

Derris sinuata 
20. Derris uliginosa 
Pongamia glabra 
Caesalpinia Bonducella 
CsBialpinia Nuga 
Sophora tomentosa 
25. Cynometra ramiflora 
Entada scandens 
Rhizophoia mucronata ... 
libizophox’a conjngata 
Ceriops Candolleana 
30. Ceriops lloxburghiaua ... 
Braguiera gymnorhiza ... 
Terminalia Catappa 
Lumnitzera racemosa 
Gyrocarpus Jacquinii 
35. Barringtouia speciosa 
Barringtonia racemosa ... 
Pemphis acidala 
Sesuvium Portnlacastrnm 
Stephegyne diversifolia ... 

40. Guettarda speciosa 
Ixora brunnescens 
Morinda bracteata 
Adenosterama viscosura ... 
Pluchea indica 
46. VVedelia scandens 
Scaevola Kcenigii 


Atlantic. 

Indian 

Ocean. 

1 Malay 

1 seas. 

1 

Pacific. 

Eestern America. 

Western Africa. 

1 Eastern Africa. 

1 Mascarene Islands. 

1 Indian coasts. 

Burma, Malacca. 
Andaman, Java. 

Malay Islands. 

Northern Australia, 

Polynesia. 

Western America. 



— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



— 

— 


— 

X 

— 

— 

— 



— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

_ 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

X 


— 

— 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 


— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

_ 


- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

_ 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


- 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 


_ 

- 

- 

? 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X ' 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

* 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



190 

















































381 


Species. 

Atlantic. 

Indian Ocean. 

Malay 

seas. 

1 I’aeific. 

Eastern America. 

Western Africa. 

Eastern Africa. 

1 Mascarene Islands. 

Indian coasts. 

Burma, Malacca, 
Andaman, Java 

Malay Islands. 

Northern Australia. 

Polynesia. 

Western America. 

[Ardisia humilis] 

* 



__ 

X 

X 

X 


_ 


Aegiceras majus 

— 


- 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

Mimusops littoralis 

— ' 

_ 

— 


— 

X 




■ 

50. Cerbera Odollam 

■ 

_ 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Ochrosia borboDica 




X 

X 

X 

X 




Tabei’naemontana crispa 

— ' 

— 

_ 

— 

— 

X 


_ 



Saroolobns giobosns 

— ' 

_ 

- 


X 

X 

X 

_ 



Cordia snbcordata 

_ 

— 

X 

X 

[^] 

X 

X 

X 

X 


55. Toarnefortia argentea ... 



X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Argyreia fciliEefoiia 

— 

— 



X 

X 

X 

— 


_ 

Ipomaea grandifiora 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Ipomaea digitata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

, Ipom^a denticulafca 

— 

— 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

60. Ipomaea biloba 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[X] 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Convolvulus parviflorus 

— 

— 

— 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 


Pbysalis minima 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[Oroxylum indicum] 

— 

- 

— 

- 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

Eranthemum succifolium 




- 


X 

? 



— 

65. [Peristrophe acuminata] 

— 


- 

- 

— 

X 

X 

— 

_ 


[Lippia nodiflora] 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Premna integrifolia 

— 

— 

- 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

t 

— 

Premna sp. 


— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

? 

p 

_ 


Vitex Negundo 

_ 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 




70. [Vitex pubescens] 

— 

— 

- 


X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

[Vitex VVimberleyi] 

— 

— 

— 


— 

X 

— 


— 

— 

Clerodendron inerme ... 

— 


— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Avicennia oflacinalis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

Boerhaavia repens 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


75. Pisonia aculeata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 


[Pisonia exoelsa] 

— 

_ 

- 

- 

— 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 

Achyranthes porphyristachya ... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 

Hernandia peltata 

— 

— 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

-- 

Cassytha filiformis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

80. Euphorbia Atoto 

— 

w 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

Macaranga Tanarius ... 

— 

— 

- 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

Cycas Rumpbii 

— 

— 

— 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

Orinum asiaticum 

— 




X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

Tacca pinnatifida ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

85. Dracaena angustifolia ... 

- 


- 

- 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 


[Gloriosa snperba] 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

Flagellaria indica 


— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

Caryota sobolifera 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

[Cocoa nucifera] 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

90. Pandanus odoratissimus 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

Cyperna pennatus 

— 

1 _ 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

Fimbristylis ferruginea 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Tbuarea sarmentosa 

— 


— 

X 

! X 

X 

X 

1 X 

X 

— 

Ischaemum muticum 

- 

1 - 

- 

- 


1 ^ 

X 

1 X 

X 

- 


191 






































382 

This list includes 94 species for which sea-introduction is conceivable, 
and for the presence of most of the species it contains this mode of intro¬ 
duction is almost certainly responsible. The list might even be made more 
extensive than it is, for if StercuUa ruhiginosa, which is a purely “ litto¬ 
ral ” species here as it is elsewhere throughout the Andaman and Nicobar 
groups—to which area the variety found in the Coco Islands is strictly 
confined,—be sea-introduced, there is no reason why some of the other 
species of Sterculia should not bo added. As a matter of fact the writer 
has collected specimens of species of StercuUa in Nai-condam and in Batti 
Malv, the first island a locality where certainly, the second one where 
probably, every species present has been somehow or other introduced. 
But no StercuUa seeds were recognised in the “ drifts ” and therefore 
the whole of the species have been left out except this purely ‘ littoral ’ 
one, while even it has been omitted from consideration in the analysis 
of the table which follows. Again, Leea hirta might well be sea-intro¬ 
duced if Leea sambucina is ; their fruits are very similar and Leea fruits are 
common in the “drifts.” All the fruits found, however, were precisely 
the same and seemed to be undoubtedly those of Leea sambucina, which 
is a very common species in the mud flats that skirt the mangrove- 
swamps, where it occurs as a considerable shrub or small tree with 
stilted roots that imitate the style and appearance of those of the man- 
groves. Both species, however, may have been introduced by fruit¬ 
eating birds ; only one therefore, owing to its habitat, is taken as an 
example of this mode of introduction, the other being relegated to the list 
of species that are bird-introduced. Another species to which the same 
remarks apply is Ardisia htimilis, which is a purely beach-forest species 
and, as such, is equally common here, on Narcondam, in the Andamans, 
and in the Nicobars; perhaps it is, on the whole, more likely to have been 
introduced owing to birds having eaten its purple-berried fruit. Allophy- 
lus Cobbe, which is almost cei'tainly bird-introduced, may be quoted in 
support of this, for though it also occurs in the interior it is a common 
tree in the Pandanus fence and in the beach-forest. Bracontomelum man- 
gif erum might be a sea-introduced species, for Mr. Hemsley records a 
Bracontomelum ? fruit from the New Guinea “drift”, with empty seed- 
cells however {Challenger Reports ; Botany, vol. i, part 3, p. 290). And 
if Bracontomelum be included so might Spondias and Canarium, for 
though birds and bats eat the pulpy fruits of these species they cannot 
swallow the stone and, as in the case of Terminalia Catappa, can hardly 
do more than assist in dispersing them locally. Besmodium triquetrum 
and Besmodium polycarpum are both very common on the rocky parts of 
the coast just above the spray-line and their fruits therefore are extremely 
common in the “ drifts.” But it is not at all clear that they must therefore 
192 


be put down in the list of sea-introduced species; they are welVknown 
as weeds of cultivation elsewhere, being diffused because of the readi¬ 
ness with which the indehiscent segments of their fruits attach them¬ 
selves to the clothes of man and to the fur of his domestic animals. 
Here they are undoubtedly not weeds introduced by man, but it may 
well be that they have been introduced by bii’ds, owing to fi’agments 
of their pods having attached themselves to their feathers. Another 
species to which the same I’emarks apply is Adenostemma viscosum, though 
this is more probably sea-introduced than the other; still another is Boer- 
Tiaavia re-pens ; perhaps all four are distributed at one time by the sea, at 
another by birds. Lippia nodiflora may also be a bird-introduced species ; 
its seeds may have been brought in the pellets of mud that become 
attached to the feet, and to the feathers at the base of the bill of 
wading- and swimming-birds. Acliyranthes porphyristacliya yfhich^ from 
its situation in these islands, cannot be a weed introduced by man, and 
which is a common sea-shore species in the Nicobax-s and in the 
Laccadives also, may perhaps be bird-introduced like the JDesmodia. 
If, as is suggested, now one agency, now another is responsible for 
the dispersal of these species, it is easy to understand why those 
species should all be “ littoral ” in these islands and yet occur as 
inland species in other localities. Mucuna gigantea will be readily 
admitted as an unequivocal example of this mode of distribution, 
as will Derris sinuata, for both occur in the beach-forest more com¬ 
monly than they do on the ridges ; so too, will the other Leguminosce of 
the list except perhaps Entada scandens. And yet Entada scandens 
must be sometimes an introduced species, for it is one of the plants 
that occur on Narcondam, an island for which it seems impossible to 
postulate any previous land-connection ; the writer moreover had the good 
fortune to find one of its enormous seeds germinating along with those 
of Mucuna, etc., on the sandy islet between Great Coco and Jerry. 

Physalis minima is a species that at first suggests bird-introduction 
rather than sea-introduction, and its wide inland dispersal undoubtedly 
is largely owing to its fruits being eaten and to the subsequent voiding 
of its hal’d discoid seeds. But here it is only found close to the sea just 
above the spray-line and its fuits were found in the “ drifts ” here and 
there, the light bladder-like calyx amply accounting for their flotation; 
the pulp of the fruit probably protects the seeds, if such protection be 
necessary, from the action of the salt water. Among the Gonvolvulacece, 
for which this means of dispersal is not at all uncommon, the only species 
now included that calls for remark is Convolvulus parviflorus. It is, 
however, one of the commonest of the sea-face creepers along the west 
coast of Great Coco, and is equally common on Narcondam, Barren 

193 


384 


Island, Rutland Island and Batti Malv, and is included in the list without 
anj feeling of doubt in the naind of the writer. On the other hand, in¬ 
deed, it is with some diflS.dence that another species, Ipomcea Turpethum, 
is omitted. All three species of Vitex given are “ littoral,” but while there 
seems no doubt that Vitex Negundo is sea-introduced, it is on the whole 
more probable that the others are introductions by fruit-eating birds. 
Macaranga Tanarius is also a species that from its habitat the writer has 
no hesitation in considering a sea-introduced species ; another that he 
would have wished to include is Blachia andamanica which occurs on 
the coast with Desmodiwn umhellatum, PliicJiea indica and other un¬ 
equivocally littoral species. Moreover there are several of these shrubby 
and arboreous Euphorhiacece on Narcondam ; their presence there indicates 
that some mode of introduction for species of this order must be possible. 
In the absence, however, of direct experiment with their seeds the others 
have been left to swell, probably unduly, the list of “remanent” 
species. Tacca pinnatifida, which is an inland as well as a coast species, 
may be bird-introduced, for its seeds are embedded in a sweet pulp. 
But though a species of ant is very fond of this fruit and scoops out 
all the ripe pulp, leaving the seeds bare but uninjured in an other¬ 
wise empty bag, no bird, so far as the writer could see, appears 
to eat them. The two Pisonias, one a climber, the other a tree, are 
both “ littoral ” and so may well be sea-introduced, but as both 
have peculiar fruits with glutinous lines along their sides they may 
equally well be bird.-introduced species. The sticky lines along the 
angles of the fruits of Pisonia excelsa in particular have all the tenacity 
of bird-lime. As this species occurs some way inland as well as along 
the coast there is little doubt that, even if sea-inti’oduced, its further 
dispersal is assisted by ground-feeding birds or small mammals. The 
fruits of two species of Dipterocarpus were seen in the “drifts,” but the 
writer has no hesitation, from what is known regarding the delicacy of 
the seeds in this order and the rapidity with which their power of 
germinating is lost, in excluding both from the list. From what has 
already been said regarding “civilized” species it will be seen that 
though Cocos nucifera is undoubtedly capable of being introduced by 
the sea, it is px’obably not to this agency that its presence in these 
islands is due. Caryota soboUfera, however, which is throughout the 
whole Andaman group a very common species, both on flat and on 
rising ground, and which is as common on Narcondam as in the Cocos, 
is probably a sea-introduced species. 

Peristrophe acuminata is another species that affects only the locali¬ 
ties in which Desmodmm polycarpum and its companions are found and 
ought probably to be included among the littoral species ; in the absence 
194 


385 


of further evidence, however, it is treated as only doubtfully sea- 
introduced, Another doubtful species is Dodoncsa viscosa, a cosmopolitan 
species. Still another, equally doubtful, is Gloriosa superba which is ex¬ 
ceedingly common in the coast zone on both the Coco Islands, and which 
the writer has collected, in the coast zone also and only there, in South 
Andaman, in Rutland Island, in Batti Malv, in Car Nicobar, in Narcon- 
dam, and in Barren Island, and which Dr. Alcock has collected, near the 
sea, in the Laccadives. On the whole therefore we might feel justified 
in considering it a sea-introduced species. But it is very abundant also 
throughout the whole of India; it extends from the Nilghiris and 
Central India to Rajputana, the Panjab, and the Gangetic plain, as well 
as to the Himalaya from Kamaon to Bhutan, and is common in Bengal, 
Assam and Burma. It cannot very easily be bird-introduced and one 
must therefore incline to the opinion that the agency responsible here 
is that of winds, a view which is favoured by the nature of its seeds. 
But even then it is not easy to suppose that winds could carry these as far 
as some of the islands mentioned and still that its distribution should be 
limited to South-Eastern Asia. Oroxylum indicum might possibly be 
sea-inti’oduced, but on the whole has more probably been brought by 
wind. It need not be indigenous for it occurs in abundance in Narcondam. 
Though its fruits occur in the “ drifts ” they are always split open and 
it is unlikely that the seeds could remain attached to the fruit-segments 
during their transit from any of the neighbouring coasts. 

Few of the cryptogams can be considered “ littoral ” and the state¬ 
ments that have been made of the possibility of Fungi, etc., being brought 
to ocean-islands attached to logs of wood or trunks of trees are not as a 
rule made by those who have seen and carefully examined ocean-drifts. 
Even Polyporus sangumale, which apparently has a prediliction for dead 
or dying trunks of Cocos nucifera, being commoner there than in any 
other situation, was not found growing on any of the trunks that lie on 
the beaches exposed to the sun after having been soaked in salt water. 
The logs that are cast up on the beach and the roots that protrude from 
the sand at those points where denudation is going on, are scrubbed 
bare by the coral-sand and bleached white by the sun ; they harbour no 
Fungi and seem preserved from decay by the treatment to which 
they have been subjected. There is, however, a striking exception in a 
“ dry-rot ” which attacks Mimusops littoralis trunks and some other 
timbers. In the case of the Bullet-wood it was seen both on Great and 
Little Coco; the same appearance was presented by the remains of 
a wooden vessel in Little Coco, The appearance and consistence of 
this “ dry-rot ” so closely resemble the results of charring that it was 
difficult to realize that the wood in question had not been subjected to 

195 


386 


fire. The effects of actual charring were, however, observed in the 
hollow trunk of a large Mimusops near the shelter huts at the south end 
of Great Coco ; closer comparison shows that the product of the Fungus 
has a facies of its own unlike that of true charcoal. This difference is 
difficult to express in words, but is very recognisable when the two things 
are placed side by side. The phenomenon was not noticed in the case 
of Erythrina, Heritiera, Stephegyne, or other dead trees on the beach. 

Excluding from consideration all the doubtful species enclosed in 
brackets we find that there are 80 unequivocally sea-introduced plants, or 
more than one-fourth of the phanerogamic species and over 22 per cent, of 
the entire flora. On consulting the distribution it is seen how greatly the 
coast flora is one characteristic of the Indian Ocean and of Malayan Seas, 
particularly the latter, since 76 species, or 97 per cent, occur on the shores 
of the Malay Islands, whereas only 66, or 83 per cent., occur on the Indian 
coasts of the Sea of Bengal. Moreover one of these, Sarcolobus globosus, 
might almost be omitted, its only Indian locality being the Sunderbuns, at 
the head of the Bay of Bengal. Another, Ipomma denticulata, though ex¬ 
tending up the eastern side of the Bay to the coast of Arracan, is, on the 
western side, confined to Ceylon. This indication of a tendency to ex¬ 
tension eastward is borne out by the features of the further distribution 
of these species, for 60 species, or 76 per cent., extend south-eastward 
to the shores of northern Australia, while only 47, or 59 per cent., extend 
south-west to the Mascarene Islands ; and 51 species, or 64 per cent., 
occur in one or other of the Polynesian groups, while only 36, or 46 per 
cent., reach continental East Africa. But, while this is the case, it is inter- 
estino- to note that 21 species, or 24 per cent., occur on the African Atlantic 
coast, and 15 species, or 19 per cent., cross the Atlantic to the Eastern 
coasts of America, whereas only 13 species, or 16 per cent., extend across 
the Pacific from Polynesia to the Western American coasts. These fea¬ 
tures of the littoral flora are given more compactly in the subjoined table. 

Table XV. Extension of “ littoral ” species present in the Coco Group. 


Species 

extending westward to 

Species 
present in the 

Species 

extending eastward to 

America. 

(Atlantic Coasts.) 

West Africa. j 

(Atlantic Coasts.) 

Eastern Africa. 

1 

Mascarene. 

India and Ceylon. 

Coco Group. 

Malay Archipelago. 

North Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

(Pacific Coasts.) 

15 

21 

36 

47 

66 

80 

76 1 60 

51 

13 

19% 

24% 

46% 

597o 

837o 

100% 

97% 1 76% 

647„ 

167o 


196 























887 


An analysis of tlie table of distribution from the opposite point of 
view is given below ; from it we learn that 11 species, or 14 per cent,, 
are cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores ; that four more are nearly cos¬ 
mopolitan, being present in both hemispheres ; that only four, so far as is 
known, are limited to the coasts of these islands, the Andamans and the 
ISTicobars; and that, excepting these four, every one of the species is found 
on the Malayan Coasts. So far then as the “ littoral ” species are con¬ 
cerned we must conclude that the flora of the Coco Gi’oup is decidedly 
Malayan. 


Table XVI. Analysis of distribution of “ Littoral ” species. 


Present on both Pacific and Atlantic coasts :—. . 19 

Cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores :— . 11 

Almost ditto, (present in both hemispheres). 4 


Absent from Pacific American coasts only :— .. 2 

Absent from Pacific Polynesian coasts only ..... 1 

Absent from Eastern African and Mascarene coasts only 1 

Absent from New World entirely :— .. 4 


Preseat on Atlantic and Indian Ocean (not on Pacific) coasts . . 1 

Present on Pacific and Indian Ocean (not on Atlantic) coasts . 33 

Extending from Africa to Polynesia:— . 15 

On all intervening shores:—. 141 

Absent only from Northern Australia ..p 

Extending from Mascarene islands to Polynesia ;—. 9 

Extending from India to Polynesia ...... 8 

Extending from Coco Islands to Polynesia ... .. 1 


Confined to Indian Ocean and Malayan Seas . 

Western species: —. 

Extending from Africa to Australia:— . 

In both Africa and Mascarenes . 

In Mascarenes, not in Africa. 

Extending from Africa to Malaya only . 

In Continental Africa, not in Mascarenes 
In Mascarenes, not in Africa.. .... 

Eastern species :—._•... 

Extending from Australia to India .. . 

Extending from Australia to the Coco Group 

Central species :— .. ... •• 



27 


Extending from India to Malaya ... 

Extending from Coco Group to Malaya ..... 

Extending from Coco Group to Nicobars only . 


Total number of “ Littoral ” species 


80 


In diacussing the iulaud “ immigrant ” species the first agency to 
be considered ,is that of winds. This influence must here be stronger 

197 





































388 


than in many places, for though the south-west monsoon, which blows for 
half the year, sweeps only over a wide expanse of sea before it reaches 
the islands, there is a very distinct and tolerably powerful north-east 
monsoon which, during a considerable part of the remaining half-year, 
blows from the direction of the adjacent Burmese coast. 

It is, however, easy to overrate the eifect of this agency and however 
well adapted certain friuts, such as those of the two Dipterocarpi, Terminalia 
bialata, Pterocarpus indicus, StercuUa companulata, Porana spectabilis, 
Illigera conyzadenia, Ventilago calyculata, or seeds, such as those of 
StercuUa alata, Gloriosa superba, Aristolochia tagala, may at first sight 
appear to be for transmission by wind, it seems very doubtful on further 
consideration if any of those mentioned could possibly be carried so far 
as from the nearest mainland to these islands. In most of these cases the 
wings of the fruits or seeds can only, as in that of Gyrocarpus, assist 
in local dispersal. Regard must be paid, too, to the usual situation of 
the species, and in the case of Orchids, for example, the seeds of 
which are light, and well adapted for carriage in this way, it is doubtful 
if Calanthe veratrifoUa, which is always found in densely shady places, 
could have been brought in this way. Similarly among the inland 
Cryptogams, for all of which except Chara this means of dispersal is 
doubtless possible, it seems more probable that Acrostichum appendi- 
culatum, which affects the same localities as Calanthe, and Geratopteris 
thalictroides, which undoubtedly is sometimes, if not always, bird- 
introduced, ought to be excluded from this list. 

The table below gives the whole of the possibly “ wind-introduced ” 
species present in the group. 


Table XVII. Distribution of Wind-introduced “ inland ” species 
present in the Coco Group. 



1 

1 

S. E. Asia. 

Anstralia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

Narcondam. 

Barren Island. 

Species. 

Africa. 

India. 

Indo-China. 

Malaya. 1 

Bombax insigne 

_ 

X 

X 

X 




? 


Eriodendron anfractuosum 

X 

X 

X 

X 



X 



Dodonsea viscosa ... ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



[Vernonia cinerea] 

X 

X : 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



5, Vernonia divergens 


X 

X 





X 


Bumea virens 

_ 

X 

X 





X 


rStrnnhanthus Walliobii].., 

- 


rx] 

- 

- 

- 

- 


? 


198 





















389 


Species, 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

Narcondam. | 

Barren Island. 

India. 

Indo-China. 

j Malaya. 

Anodendron paniculatutn ... 


X 

X 

X 




X 


Chonemorpha raacrophylla 

— 

X 

[x] 

X 

- 

— 

- 

X 

— 

10. Hoya parasitica 

-• 


X 

X 

— 


— 

X 

X 

Hoya di^ersifolia 

-- 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Dischidia nummularia 

— 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Oroxylam indicnm ... ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Heterophi'agma adeaophyllum 

— 

— 

X 

- 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

15. Aristolochia tagala 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Dendrobium secundum ... 

— 

-- 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

[Calanthe veratrifoliaj ... ... 

— 

X 

[X] 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Dorites Wightii 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Aerides multiflorum 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

20. Pholidota imbricata 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

— 

X 

Dioscorea glabra ... ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

X 

X 

Dioscorea pentapbylla 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Gloriosa superba 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

[Ischeemum ciliare] 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

25. [Andropogon contortus] ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

Davallia solida 

— 

1 ^ 

[x: 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 


Adiantnm lunulatum 

X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

_ 

Poly podium irioides 

X 

1 X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Poly podium adnascens 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

30. Poly podium quercifolium... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

Vittaria elongata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

— 

Acrosticbum scandens 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

X 

[Acrostichum appendiculatum] 

— 

X 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Lygodium flexuosum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

35. Calymperes Dozyanum ... 

— 

[X] 

[X] 

X 

— 

X 

— 

? 


Bryum coronatum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Collema nigrescens 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Physcia obscura 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

— 

Lentinus leucocbrous 

— 


[X] 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

_ 

40. Lenzites deplanata 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Lenzites subferruginea 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

— 


Polyporus fulvus 

— 

— 

[X] 

X 

— 

— 

— 


— 

Polyporus xanthopus 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

? 

— 

Polyporus sanguineus 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

? 


45. Polyporus grararaatoceptalns 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

— 

— 

Polyporus australis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Hexagona pergamenea 

— 

[X] 

rxi 

- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Hexagona sericeo-hirsuta 

— 

— 

[x] 


— 

— 

X 

— 


Hexagona tenuis 

X 


[x] 

— 


* 

— 


— 

50. Dedaelea flabellum 

— 

X 

[xl 

— 

— 


— 



Dedaelea sanguinea 

— 

X 

[X] 

- 

- 

— 

— 

— 


Dedaelea quercina 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

? 

— 

Dedaelea coacenti’ica 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Thelephora incrustans 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

65. Bo vista lilacina 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



Hirneola polytricba 

X ! 

X 

X ' 

X 

— 

X 

X 

— 

_ 

Daldinia vernicosa ... ... | 


X I 

[x]i 




X 



Rhytisma sp. ... ... ... j 

- ; 

“ ! 

[X]| 

-I 

- 

- 

- 

X 

X 


J99 








































390 


It will be seen that the majority of the species in this table are 
actually present in one or other of the two volcanic islands of the An¬ 
daman Sea, Narcondam and Barren Island, and even in these cases where 
they are not present allied species are. There is a Bonibax in Narcon- 
dam and though its specific identity or otherwise with the Andamans 
one cannot be here discussed, it is evident that any Bomlax may be 
wind-introduced. And whatever agency explains the presence of Boni- 
hax will, part passu, explain that of Eriodendron. 

Not a single orchid was found on Narcondam thoirgh on Barren 
Island two were found—a species of Bendrobium on trees on the outer 
cone, and PhoUdota imbricata, which occurs at the top of the inner 
cone within the crater-cup where the ground is kept moist by the con¬ 
densation of escaping steam. Then the Hoyas are both present in great 
abundance on the exposed rocks and tall trees of both islands. The 
most doubtful species uudoubtly ax-e Aristolochia tagala, Oloriosa superba, 
and, especially, the two species of Dioscorea. Tet these must all be 
immigrant. The writer has collected Aristolochia tagala on Batti 
Malv, a small outlying uninhabited fragment of the Nicobar Group, 
on Bai’ren Island, and on Nax’condam. And even if it be claimed that 
on Batti Malv the species may be a remanent one on the other two 
islands it, like every other species, must be immigrant. The case of 
Gloriosa superba has already been discussed when dealing with the 
species iuti-oduced by the sea. The Dioscoreas ai’e still more difficult 
to explain, but it hai’dly seems as if they could be bird-introduced, and 
it is almost as difficult to think that they have been introduced by the 
sea. They are never littoi’al, being even in these islands strictly con¬ 
fined to the higher diy ridges. Yet they are certainly not necessarily 
remanent, for the winter has collected not these only but a third 
species, Bioscorea bulbifera, or at all events a bulbifei’ous one, which is 
present along with these two in great quantity in Narcondam and 
especially in Barren Island. In both these islands the species must 
all be immigrant and from the physiographical history of Bainen 
Island should there be, biologically speaking, extremely x’ecently so. 
Though no Strophanthus occurs in Barren Island, an Aganosma is 
common there. The distribution of the Cryptogams of this class calls 
for little remark, the peculiarities displayed in this respect by the 
Fungi being probably altogether owing to this class being imperfectly 
known in most floi’as. The jxresence, for instance, of two species here 
that ai’e I’ecorded only from North America probably implies that they 
ai’e both in reality cosmopolitan or nearly so. 

To the 58 species enumei’ated above should be added six imperfectly 
represented Cryptogams, giving a total of 64 species ; the following table 
contains an analysis of their distribution. 

200 


Table XVIII. Analysis of the distribution of Wind-introduced species. 

Species present in both hemispheres :—. 21 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics {Phanerog. 3 ; Cryptog. 12) .. . 151 

Almost Cosmopolitan {Phanerog. 1 ; Gryptog. 5) . g' 

In Africa, Asia, Polynesia, America (Gryptog.) . 2 

In Africa, Asia, America (Phanerog.) . 1 

In Asia, Australia, America (Gryptog.) . 1 

In Asia, America (Gryptog.) ... . 2 


Confined to Old World :—. .. 43 

fin Africa, Asia, Australia, Polynesia (Gryptog.) .. . P 

In Africa, Asia, Australia (Gryptog.) . ] 

l^In Africa, Asia (Cryjotog.) . 1 

f In Asia, Australia, Polynesia (C)•^/p^oy.) 3 

■{ In Asia, Australia, (Phanerog.) . 2 

fin Asia, Polynesia(Crj/piogf.). 1 

Confined to Asia, (Phanerog. 18; Gryptog. 16) . 34 

Total of possibly winddntrodnced species :— . 64 


Phanerogams. 251 

Cryptogams . 391 


We thus see that 32 per cent, of the species are cosmopolitan, but 
that at the same time as many as 53 per cent, ai’e confined to South- 
Eastern Asia, figures which tend to shew that the agency of wind appears 
to be less active than Ave might expect. So far as the more local distribu¬ 
tion is concerned we find that 40 species, or 62 per cent., may have 
reached the islands either from Indo-China or from Malaya ; 10 species, or 
15 per cent., appear to be local species; 3 species appear to have reached 
the islands from Malaya and one must have come either from Malaya or 
Ceylon, these four are, however, all Cryptogams and may possibly yet be 
found in Indo-China. Even if it be assumed that these do not occur in 
Buima, it.leaves the south-west monsoon responsible for the introduction 
of only 6| per cent, of this group of species. The remaining 10 species, 
or about 16 per cent, of the class, have more probably been introduced 
by the north-east monsoon, a circumstance that might be expected, 
seeing that this monsoon blows from the direction of the nearest land. 
And as this is the case it will follow that the probability is strong that 
most of the species which may, so far as their present distribution 
indicates, have come either from Indo-China or Malaya have in reality 
come from the north-east. The only species of the kind for which this 
is doubtful is Chonemorpha macrophylla, which, though abundant in 
India and in the Himalaya, and equally so in Malaya and in the 
Andamans, has not yet been recorded from any part of Indo-China to 
the east of Khasia and Sylhet. 

The last group of introduced species—those carried by birds—has 
now to be considered. In discussing this it its necessary to distinguish 

201 






















392 


between species the seeds or fruits of which may arrive attached to 
the bodies of birds, and species of which the fruits and seeds have been 
eaten. The species carried externally will be first considered and may 
further be conveniently subdivided into two sub-groups, viz., species 
that have probably been introduced only by swimming- or wading-birds, 
and species introduced by birds of any kind. The species of the first 
kind give a sub-group distinguished by an aquatic or paludine habitat, 
and characterised by small inconspicuous fruits or seeds that readily 
become attached, along with pellets of mud, to the feet, the leg-feathers, 
or the feathers at the base of the bill, of birds frequenting pools and 
marshes. The following table exhibits the whole of this kind pi’esent in 
the Coco Group. 


Table XIX. Distribution of the species probably introduced by 
swimming or wading birds. 



Africa. 

s. ; 

.2 

t-H 

E. Ai 

c3 

.2 

A 

o 

o 

'Ti 

a 

HH 

3IA 

a 

Australia. | 

Polynesia. 

America. | 

Nymphsea Lotus 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

- 

- 

Limnanthemum iudicam 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Hygrophila quadrivalvis ... ... 

— 

X 

X 

~ 

— 



Lippia nodiflora 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

5. Polygonum barbatum... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



Zanichellia palustris ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cyperus polystacbyus 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Cyperus elegans 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


Cyperus dilutus 

— 

X 

! X 

X 

— 


— 

10. Fimbristylis quinqueangularis 

X 

X 

i ^ 

X 

X 

— 


Fimbristylis miliacea ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

Scirpus subulatus 

X 

X 

X 

— 

~ 



Paspalnm scrobiculatum 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

Panicum Myurus 

X 

1 ^ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

15. Ceratopteris thalictroides 

X 

: X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Chara foetida 


i X 

X 

X 





The next table gives the analysis of this distribution; the most 
striking feature the two tables reveal is the extent to which species of this 
kind are cosmopolitan. Among the non-cosmopolitan species the indica¬ 
tions are altogether in favour of introduction from the northward and 
westward, for while only 10 of the species occur in Australia, and only 
the 6, which are all cosmopolitan, occur in Polynesia, 12 occur in Africa 
and 7 in America. Of the more local distribution we learn that none need 
necessarily have been introduced from Malaya since the 14 that occur 
202 






















393 


there all occur in India and ludo-China also, while two that occur in 
India and Indo-China but do not occur in Malaya must have been intro¬ 
duced from the north. This being the case the probability is that the 
others have mainly been introduced from the same direction, a cir¬ 
cumstance quite in accordance with expectation, since it is from the north 
that the stream of migration of marsh- and water-birds annually flows. 
Daring our visits to the islands snipe were found in the meadow near 
the lake on Great Coco, while teal and other water-birds frequented the 
lake itself and abounded in the lagoon on Little Coco. 

Table XX. Analysis of distribution of Marsh a 7 id Aquatic species. 

Present in both Hemispheres :— . y 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics:.. 

Nearly cosmopolitan (absent from Polynesia) . y., , i 

Confined to Eastern Hemisphere ... g 

Africa, Asia, Australia .*. 3 

Africa, Asia .. 2 

Confined to South-eastern Asia .... * * * * 4 

Total species probably introduced by water-birds . 

The second kind of species that may be introduced by becoming 
attached externally to birds is somewhat more difficult to deal with. 
Urena lohata, which is here clearly not a weed, may have been introduced 
in this way: its fruits sticking, burr-like, to the feathers of some bird; 
Buettneria andamanensis, might also have been thus introduced, thouo-h 
this is not so probable as in the other case. Three of the Desmodia— 
Desmodium triquetrum, D. laxifiorum and D. poly carp on—maj very well 
o we their introduction to this mode of dispersal. Boerhaavia repens, as has 
already been said, is probably sea-introduced, though there is no ’reason 
why it may not partly owe its dispersal to bird-agency. Its habitat 
on these islands is always the rocky headlands or isolated rocks along 
the coast on which sea-birds sit to devour the Grapsus crabs they capture 
on the wave-washed ledges below, and nothing is more likely than that 
the fruits may become at times attached to their feet and be carried at 
least from point to point along the coast. The Pisonias may both very well 
have been introduced in this fashion, though it is less likely as regards 
P, aculeata than as regards P. excelsa. From what has been already 
said of this tree in discussing it among the “ littoral ” species, it will 
be evident that its fruits are of such a nature as to admit of their being 
carried for great distances attached to a bird’s feet or body, if only the 
bird should happen to come in contact with them, and the objection that 
scraping-birds, which might do so, are not often migratory, while fruo-ivor- 
ous birds, which are migratory, would not come in contact with the Lmits 
because they are not likely to alight on a Pisonia, is not a valid 

203 


one. 











394 


Though many such birds, as for instance Carpophaga hicolor, appear 
always to feed on trees and therefore would probably very rarely come in 
contact with Pisonia fruits, many others, as for instance CcLlosncts nico- 
harica, appear to feed as much or more on the ground, on fallen ripe 
fruits, as on the trees that bear the fruits they eat.* And in such a case 
there is no doubt that they might very easily come in contact with Pisonia 
fruits. Though essentially a beach-forest tree, the writer has col¬ 
lected specimens of Pisonia excelsa (and the tree was plentiful where 
he did so) three or four miles inland and 250—300 feet above sea-level; 
some mode of dispersal other than, or at any rate supplementing, ocean- 
dispersal, must therefore, as has already been pointed out, be postulated 
as regards this species. Of the grasses placed in this list Andropogon 
contortus already mentioned as possibly wind-introduced, much more pro¬ 
bably owes its presence to this mode of introduction Oplismenus com- 
positus is also sufficiently well endowed to render this mode of introduc¬ 
tion likely. The only Cryptogam likely to have been thus introduced is 
Acrostichum appendiculatum, the spores of which might easily get brushed 
off by the feathers of a bird walking through a patch of it. This would 
also apply to the seeds of Calanthe. 

The following table gives the names and distribution of the species 
likely to be thus introduced or likely to have their local dispersion assist- 
ed by this means. 

Table XXI. Distribution of species probably introduced attached to 


the feet or feathers of land-birds. 


Species. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. | 

India. 

Indo-China 

Malaya. 

Urena lobata i.. 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[Buettneria andamanensis3 ••• 


— 


[x] 

"" 

— 

— 


Desmodinm triquetrum 


X 

X 

X 

X 




Desmodium laxiflorum ••• 




X 

X 




5. Desmodium polycarpum 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

[Loranthus longiflorus] 



X 

X 

X 




[Boerhaavia repens] ... ••• 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


[ Pisonia acnleata] 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


X 

Pisonia excelsa ... 


* 


[X] 

X 




10. Calanthe veratrifolia... 


— 

X 

[X] 

X 

X 



Oplismenus compositus 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

“■ 

Andropogon contortus 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Acrostichum appendiculatum 



X 

X 

X 





* Tliis at least was the writer’s experience in Batti Malv, the small uninhabited 
almost inaccessible island of the Nicobar Group already referred to, where Galcenas 
nicoharica breeds, and on which thousands of individuals of this species congregate. 


204 



























395 


The list is so short that an analysis of it is nnnecessary; it is suffi¬ 
cient to note that the possibility of introduction from Malaya or from 
Indo-China is, so far as its evidence goes, evenly balanced. 

While the two lists probably include all the species usually intro¬ 
duced by being attached externally to birds they do not exhaust all the 
possibilities of the case. For, if the mud of a marsh may fix the seeds 
or fruits of paludine species to the feet or head of wading-birds, other 
substances may fix the seeds of forest species to the bodies of forest-birds. 
There is almost no limit to the number of species that might be suggested 
as introduced in this way, provided their seeds be sufficiently small; this 
very circumstance, combined with the necessarily hypothetical nature of 
the subject, makes it impossible to attempt the suggestion of this mode 
of dispersal in connection with any particular species.* 

The next kind of “ bird-introduced ” species to be considered—those 
introduced in consequence of having been eaten—may also be con¬ 
veniently divided into two sub-groups; one consisting of species where 
dissemination by birds is an every-day process, the other consisting of 
species that can only be occasionally disseminated in this fashion since 
the process implies the destruction of the bird itself. 

The first sub-group corresponds fairly closely with those species 

* The following facts will shew that, though necessarily hypothetical, the sub¬ 
ject is not far-fetched but is, on the contrary, highly deserving of attention. When 
in Narcondam the writer was particularly anxious to obtain the seeds of a species of 
Bombax present there, for sowing at Calcutta; for some days the search was hopeless 
because the capsules as they ripen are broken open and the seeds are eaten by a 
species of Horn-bill that is common in the island, while any seeds that escape the 
birds and fall to the ground are devoured by the rats that swarm in the place. At 
length under one tree, where there happened to be on the under-growth one or two 
large spider’s webs, four seeds were found sticking in these webs ; these were the 
only seeds he was fortunate enough to obtain ; they were brought to Calcutta, 
germinated there, and the four young trees are now alive in the Botanic Garden. 
This will shew that seeds easily may, and at times do, stick in spider’s webs. 

In spring 1890 a Barbet was found lying on the ground in the Botanic Garden 
unable to fly ; on being picked up and examined it was found that its left wing and 
left leg were flxed together by means of a spider’s web; on freeing these it was found 
that the toes of its left foot were further bound up in a ball and the flight-feathers 
were firmly tied together. When finally completely freed from its entanglement the 
bird flew away, frightened, but physically uninjured. This will shew that birds do 
sometimes come in contact with spider’s webs and that these are capable not merely 
of fixing objects to a bird’s feathers but of fixing these feathers so that the bird itself 
cannot move them. 

All that is therefore required in order to establish the truth of the hypothesis 
is direct observation of a bird having come in contact with a spider’s web which 
happened to have seeds lodged in it at the time, and of its carrying away seeds and 
web together. 


205 


396 


that have pulpy fruits with a hard stone or with hard indigestible seeds. 
It cannot, however^ be held to include all these, for though birds do eat 
the pulpy part of the fruits of Canarium, Spondias and Dracontomelum, 
the stones of these are too large to be swallowed; probably therefore 
some other mode of dispersal must be held accountable for the presence 
in these islands of species of those genera. For Dracontomelum intro¬ 
duction by the sea has been suggested, though doubtfully; the others 
are left, with some reluctance, among the “ remanent ” species. There 
are other species for which this agency is only doubtful, such as Miliusa, 
the fruits of which do not look very inviting—some polyalthias are, 
however, so dispersed, e. g., P. longifolia by frugivorous bats ; Physalis 
minima might well enough have been introduced in this way, but is, all 
things considered, more probably sea-introduced; some of the Gon- 
volvulacere may also have been thus introduced. Moreover it must not 
be forgotten that indirect introduction in this way is not impossible. 
As has been pointed out, some of the fruit-eating pigeons are ground¬ 
feeding creatures, and if a sticky pulpy fruit should fall into a patch of 
Oplismenus, Panicum,, Aneileona, or other small-fruited or -seeded herba¬ 
ceous ground-species, the seeds or fruits of these may become attached 
to the fruits in question and, if then swallowed unnoticed by a fruit-eat¬ 
ing bird, be voided uninjured along with the stone or seeds of the fruit 
itself and subsequently germinate. The subjoined table gives a list of 
all the species probably directly introduced; the indirect method, as 
being too hypothetical for discussion here, is not mentioned in connection 
with any particular species. 

As in the case of species introduced by wind the occurrence of 
species of this kind in the islands of Narcondam and Barren Island is 
given ; these being islands for which it is necessary at the outset to 
exclude from consideration any hypothetical “ remanent ” element.* 


* This part of the list is not so complete as it might be, since owing to the 
pressure of other duties the writer has not yet been able to complete the examination 
of the species collected by him in those islands in April 1891. This much may be said, 
that all the species quoted as occurring there do occur. But many of the others 
though not present are represented by nearly allied species and by species of this 
kind. There is for example at least one Grewia in Narcondam, there are several 
RuhiaceK and there is an Amorphophallus. In Narcondam too there is a species of 
Strychnos, while a species of Eugenia is common in Barren Island. These two isolated 
localities therefore present two genera, with species that have fruits of the kind now 
discussed, of which no representatives were met with in the Coco Group. Similarly 
Batti Malv, equally isolated, and quite uninhabited, has an Alangium and a Batura ; 
it may therefore be repeated that this list by no means overstates the possibilities of 
the agency in such a locality as this. 

306 


397 


Table XXII. Species probably introduced by fruit-eating birds. 


Species. 

'Africa. 

S. B. 

Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

Narcondam. 

Barren Island. | 

India. 

a 

o 

6 

0 k 

(i 

c3 

[Milinsa sp.] ... 



[X] 





* 


Capparis sepiaria 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Capparis tenera 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Grewia laevigata 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


— 


— 

5. Grewia Microcos 

— 

X 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Glycosmis pentaphylla ... 

- 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

X 

— 

Garuga pinnata 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Aglaia andamanica 

— 

— 

[X] 

- 


— 

— 

? 

* 

Cansjera Rheedii 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

- 

— 

X 

— 

10. Sarcostigma edule ... 

— 

— 

[x] 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Salaoia prinoides 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

Zizyphus CEnoplia 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


— 

Vitia pentagona 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

““ 

— 

Vitis carnosa 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

15. Vitis pedata ... 

- 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

X 

— 

Leea hirta 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Erioglossam edule 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Allophylns Cobbe 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Sapindus Danura 

— 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 

— 


— 

20. Pometia tomentoaa 

— 

[x] 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

— 

— 

Odina Wodier 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Seinecarpus aubpanduinformis 

- 

— 

X 

— 

— 

- 

- 

— 

— 

Semecarpua heterophylla 

— 

— 


X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Memexylon edule 

— 

[X] 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

— 

25. Modecca cordifolia 



[x] 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


Trichosanthes palmata ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Mussaenda calycina 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

? 

Pavetta indica 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


— 

Psycbotria adenophylla ... 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

** 

30. Paederia fcetida 

— 

— 

X 

X 


— 

— 

X 

X 

Ardiaia humilia 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 


Rauwolfia serpentina 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Erycibe paniculata 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

“ 

[Physalis minima] ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

X 

Myristica Irya 

— 

[x; 

X 

X 


— 




35. Myristica glauca 

~ 


[x] 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 


Dehaasia Kurzii 


— 

LxJ 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Bridelia tomentoaa 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 

— 

Bridelia Kurzii 

— 

— 

[X] 

- 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Elneggea microcarpa 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

X 


40. Phylloohlamys spinosa ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 



Plecospermum andamanicum 

— 

— 

[x. 


— 

— 

— 

— 


Ficus Benjamina 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


— 

Ficus Rumphii 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

X 

X 

Ficus retnsa ... 


X 

X 

X 

, 

X 



X 

X 


207 












































398 


Species. 

Africa. 

India. 5° 1 

M 1 

i. Asi 

ce 

d 

id 

o 

6 

a 

hH 

Malaya. [ ^ I 

Australia. I 

Polynesia. 

America. I 

Narcondam. 

Barren Island. | 

45. Ficas brevicuspis 



[><] 

X 






Ficus callosa ... 


X 

X 

X 

— 


— 

— 

— 

Ficus hispida 


X 

X 

X 

X 

_ 

— 

X 

X 

Ficus grisea ... 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Antiaris toxicaria 

_ 

X 

X 

X 

_ 


— 

— 

— 

50. Artocarpus Gomeziana ... 


— 

[^] 

X 



— 

X 


Zingiber sp. ... 

— 

- 

[xj 

- 

— 

— 

- 

— 

— 

Costus speciosus 


X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

* 

— 

— 

Smilax macrophyllus 

- 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Asparagus racemosus 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

65. Dracaena spicata 


X 

X 

X 

— 


_ 

— 

— 

Amorphophallus sp. 

— 

— 

[X] 







Pothos scandens 


X 

X 

X 


— 


X 

— 


Tlie most remarkable feature of the list is that it gives us for the 
first time a well-defined group of species none of which extend to 
America or even to Polynesia, and only two of which extend to Africa, 
though no fewer than 15, or 27 per cent., extend to Australia. The 
remaining 40 are confined to South-Eastern Asia. As regards their 
more local distribution there, 17, or 31 per cent., are confined to lands 
lying to the east of the Sea of Bengal, while 3 more occur in Ceylon 
but not in India, a circumstance which perhaps indicates that birds 
which feed on these species pass from Malaya to Ceylon but do not 
visit India. If this be the case the agency of frugivorous birds may 
partly explain the existence of a Ceylon element in the flora of the An¬ 
damans generally, a circumstance that has, as already said, been made 
the subject of remark by the late Mr. Kurz, {Report on the Vegetation of 
the Andaman Islands, p. 15) ; this point will be more fully discussed 
below. 

As many as 36 species, or 64 per cent., occur both in Indo-China 
and in Malaya ; as 15 pass southward to Australia while 14 pass northward 
to South China, and 5 pass southward to Malaya without going north to 
Indo-China, while 5 reach the islands from Indo-China without extend¬ 
ing to Malaya, we may conclude that, though this element in the flora is 
distinctly non-Indian, the Indo-Chinese and Malay-Australian influences 
are, so far as it is concerned, evenly balanced. 

Since the active agency in the dispersal of these species is that of 

208 


























399 


fruit-eating birds, it ought to be possible to show that the known migra¬ 
tions of these creatures sufficiently explain their distribution. For all 
the species that occur in the Malay Archipelago this is extremely easy 
to do. The western half of the Malay Archipelago is particularly rich 
in fruit-eating pigeons and, as this area lies on both sides of the equator, 
the annual changes of season must canse the fruit-eating species, follow¬ 
ing the fruits on which they feed as these become mature, to oscillate 
from side to side of the equator. The same condition will ensure further 
migration from Southern Malaya to North Australia and vice versa on 
the one hand, and from Northern Malaya to the Nicobars and Andamans 
and vice versa on the other. It is not necessary to suppose that any 
particular fruit-eating bird must range from one end to the other of 
the area here considered, though some species, like Galoenas nicoharica, 
which extends from these islands to New Guinea, nearly or altogether 
do so; it is sufficient to know that such birds are seasonal visitants in 
given locality, as is true of Garpophaga hicolor, Garpophaga insularis, 
Galcenas nicoharica, and many other species in those very islands ; the 
region depleted of one set of species by the migration of these towards 
the north is filled with individuals representing another set coming 
from an area still further south. By the necessary over-lapping of 
the ranges of migration of different birds a continuous chain of dispersal 
is kept up and, even if Malayan bii’ds never go further north than 
these islands, the process is continued by the arrival from and departure 
to the opposite point of the compass, of Indo-Chinese species ; it is 
therefore not surprising to find that, where the climatic conditions still 
continue favourable, the same bird-distributed species of Phanerogams 
extend from North Australia through all the intervening areas to 
Southern China. This being so, the appearance of the same species in 
India and in Malaya, which is the case in 33 species, or 58 per cent., of 
the group, is simply explained. Certain species of birds, instead of 
only passing southward from China to Indo-China, pass also south- 
westward to the Eastern Himalaya or to the Assam valley, from whence 
these, or other, species of birds carry the seeds of the plants in question 
still further south-westward into peninsular India. This may explain 
also why certain species, like Pcederia fcetida, extend from Malaya 
northwards to Indo-China on the eastern line of migration, but on 
the western extend only southward to the Eastern Himalaya and not 
into India; the species of birds that eat their fruits may perhaps not 
migrate on the more western line of migration further south than the 
Himalayan slopes. The same reasoning applies to those species, ofi 
which there are 3, or about 5 per cent,, that extend to Southern India 
on the western line of migration but do not go as far as Malaya on the 

209 


400 


eastern line. The species that are common to these islands and to 
Ceylon are more difficult to explain. If we felt certain that they are 
species of distinctively Ceylonese type and that they occur, out of 
Ceylon, only in these islands, we might suppose that Ceylon birds are 
occasionally driven by storms as far as the Coco Group and consider 
the dispersal of the seeds of such species as one of the indirect sequels 
of cyclones of unusual severity. The birds even need not be different, 
as regards species, from those commonly found in the Andamans ; they 
need only be individuals that have followed the western instead of the 
eastern line of migration southward, and that under exceptional cir¬ 
cumstances have passed directly from one line of migration to the other, 
carrying in their crops seeds or fruits that are characteristic of the line 
of migration from which they have been driven. If the species are 
not of Ceylonese type, their occurrence both in Ceylon and the Cocos 
may, as has been said already, only indicate that they have been brought 
directly from Malaya or Australia by southern birds that migrate to Cey¬ 
lon as well as to the Coco Group but do not go as far north as peninsular 
India. 

The remaining sub-group consists of species with seeds or fruits 
that are eaten by birds of different kinds, not for the sake of any pulpy 
portion, but on account of the nutritious properties of the whole fruit 
or seed. We have to realize that the dispersal in this case is not, as in 
the case of pulpy fruits the seeds of which are afterwards voided, an 
oi’dinary circumstance, inasmuch as the seeds are eaten for their own 
sake and are of necessity digested by the birds that eat them. But 
though it is not perhaps a common occurrence—the numbers of migrat¬ 
ing grain- or seed-eating individuals considered—for newly-arrived 
birds to be killed, there is no doubt that a certain proportion, tired out 
by their long flight, must fall victims to raptatorial birds immediately 
on their arrival, the grains or seeds that their crops may contain 
falling aside and possibly germinating. Besides this means of introduc¬ 
ing such species, and, even if the results be slight, it must nevertheless 
be in constant operation, there is the further possibility of similar species 
being introduced during severe cyclones, owing to birds that have been 
driven to land being captured and devoured, while exhausted by the 
buffeting of the tempest, by birds or beasts of prey. In this way not 
only the grain- or seed-eating species that ordinarily visit the islands, 
but species both of this and of the fruit-eating class that do not usually 
reach the group, may conceivably arrive and as conceivably bring with 
them the seeds of plants that birds which are normal visitants have 
no opportunity of meeting with or may not care to eat. It has to 
be admitted, however, that species for which this mode of introduction 
210 


401 


is claimed may with some degree of reason he looked upon as distinctly, 
though indirectly, introduced by wind.* 

The species for which this mode of introduction is conceivable are 
given below. That many of them must be introduced species their pre¬ 
sence in Narcondam and Barren Island testifies ; it is therefore, as regards 
these, somewhat on the principle of exclusion that they are referred to 
this class, and for some of them, such as Ahrus preccLtovius, it is doubtful 
if it be not rather the sea that is responsible for their appearance. 


Table XXIIT. Species perhaps introduced by seed- and grain-eating birds. 


Species. 

Africa. 

s. 

a 

a 

H-1 

Indo-China. ’ 

> 

3IA. 

g 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

Cyclea peltata 


X 

X 

X 




Abrus precatorius 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Abrus pulchellus 

* 

X 

X 

X 


— 


Mucuna prnriens 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

5. Acacia pennata ... ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 


_ 


Albizzia Lebbek ... ... ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



Albizzia procera 

— 

X 

X 

X 



* 

Ipomsea Turpethum ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 


Pollia zorzogonensis var, ... ... 

— 

— 

[x] 

X 

— 

— 


10. Commelina obliqua ... ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 




[Aneilema ovatum] ... 

— 


X 

X 

— 



Panicum colonnm ... ... ... 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Panicum Helopus 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 



Panicum javanicnm ... 

— 

— 

rx] 

X 

— 

— 

* 

15. [Panicum ciliare] 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[Ischmmum ciliare] ... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

[Eleusine indica] 

+ 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

[Dendrocalamus strictus] 

** 

X 

X 






* That there is nothing extravagant in claiming this as a possible means of 
introduction, the following passage (which refers, as it happens, to one of the 
islands under discussion), will sufficiently prove :—“ Mr. Hawkins told us that when 
“ the storm w'as over ************ 
“ every hollow of the island was tenanted by hundreds of numbed or wounded 
“ .sea-birds of all descriptions (such as he had never seen near the island before or 
“ since) so terrified or exhausted that he picked up or took home several of them to 
“ the light-house to show to his wife. Mixed with these were a certain number 
“of pigeons, parrots, and other land-birds, but the great majority were Petrels, 
“ Terns, Whale-birds and such like sea-fowl with which his experience as a sailor 
“in southern seas had made him familiar. Most of these birds ultimately recovered 
and left the island, but many of them hung about it for weeks, and for many 
days remained so tame that they would not move from the ground or the rocks, 

211 




























402 


Of the above, Gyclea peltata, Ahrus precatmius, Acacia pennaia, Al- 
hizzia Leblek, Alhizzia procera, Ipomoea Turpethum, and Pollia zorzogon- 
ensis occur in Narcondam. With few exceptions they are widely distri¬ 
buted species ; five are cosmopolitan, one extends throughout the Eastern 
Hemisphere and thence to A.ustralia and Polynesia, two extend from 
Africa and Asia to Australia, one occurs in Asia and Africa, one in 
Asia and Australia; only eight species, or less than half of the group, 
are confined to South-Eastern Asia. Of these latter, three are confined 
to the countries east of the Bay of Bengal; two of them, Panicum 
javanicum, and the particular variety of PolUa zorzogonensis that occurs, 
are moreover distinctively l\Ialayan, as opposed to Indo-Chinese, plants. 
On the other hand one species, Dendrocalamus strictus, is as distinctively 
an Indian or Indo-Chinese plant. 

We have now in conclusion to consider the “remanent ” species, a 
list of which is given in the subjoined table ; in a few cases where in. 
troduction is remotely possible the agency that may have been respon¬ 
sible is indicated. 

“ where they happened to alight, to make way for the keeper or his men.” (Hume ; 
Stray Feathers, vol. ii, p. 113-4.) 

In this passage we have all the evidence that is required to show that not merely 
the nsnal visitants but even nnnsnal ones may at times he driven to, or seek shelter 
on these islands when in an exhausted or injured condition, and to show that this is 
as likely to happen to grain-, pulse-, and seed-eating species as to fruit-, or fish-, 
crustacean- or mollusc-eating ones It is of little moment that the fish- or crustacean- 
eating species must always be the more numerous, if we know that species of the 
other kind are at any time driven to the islands in this state. All of these exhausted 
and injured creatures certainly do not recover or escape destruction. As regards 
those that simply die, when the insects that abound have eaten all but their bones, 
the seeds that may have been contained in tbeir crops must fall aside and may 
germinate and grow. And as regards those that are killed and devoured it would be 
remarkable if a few of the seeds in their crops did not thus fall aside and obtain an 
opportunity of germinating. 

Even if no other creature that exists in these islands were capable of, or likely 
to, catch and eat such exhausted birds, the presence of a large lizard— Hydrosaurus 
snh’ator— which is very common, is sufficient to account for the destruction of 
many of them. During our visit to Little Coco one of the officers of the ” Investi¬ 
gator ” shot two Garpophaga bicolor—right and left—by the side of the lagoon near 
the south end of the island. Before his attendant could reach the birds, which had 
fallen among the Pandanus bushes of the sea-fence, one of these lizards had 
already eaten all but the wings and head of one pigeon and had torn open the breast 
of the second ere it could be interrupted in its feast. On a previous occasion 
a Hydrosaurus was killed as it was apparently about to seize a Teal that had just 
been shot and had been laid down on a rock in the same lagoon. On opening up 
this creature its stomach was found to contain already a large land crab, two fishes, 
and a quantity of grassy roots (apparently those of Scirpus suhulatus), 

212 


403 


Table XXIV. Possibly “ Eemanent ” species of the Coco Island flora. 


Species. 

Africa. 

S. 

E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

Possibly 

introduced 

by 

India. 

Indo-Cbina. 

Malaya. 

♦Milinsa sp. ... 




[><] 






[Cyclea peltata] 

... 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 

? Birds. 

*Antitaxis calocarpa 

... 

— 


[X] 

— 

— 

— 

_ 


Alsodeia bengalensis 


— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 



5. Dipterooarpns pilosua 

... 

— 

— 

X 

X 

- 

— 

— 


Dipterocarpns alatas 

... 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Sterculia villosa 

... 

— 

X 

rx1 

— 

— 


_ 


*[Sterculia rnbiginosa var.~\ 

• ♦ 

— 

— 

[X] 

— 

— 

— 

-- 

P Ocean. 

Sterculia parviflora ... 


— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


10. Sterculia alata ... 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Sterculia colorata 


— 

X 

X 

— 

— 


_ 


Sterculia campanulata 

... 

- 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Buettneria andamanensis 

... 

— 

— 

[x] 

— 

— 

* 

— 


Berrya Arumonilla ... 

. . 

— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

- 

— 


15. *Grewia calopbylla ... 

... 

— 

— 

fxl 

— 

— 

— 

— 

? Birds. 

♦Canarium euphyllum 


— 

— 

i ^ ' 

— 

— 

— 

— 


Amoora Roliituka 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 

? Birds. 

Cbikrassia tabularia ... 

... 

— 

X 

[x] 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Phlebocalymua Lobbiana 


— 

- 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


20. Glyptopetalnm calocarpum 


— 

— 

rxi 

— 

— 

— 

— 


Siphonodon celastrinens 


— 

— 

Lxj 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Ventilago calyculata... 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Parisbia insignis 


— 

— 

[X] 

— 

— 

— 

— 


Spondiasmangifera ... 


— 

X 

X 

X 

“ 

— 

— 


25. [Dracontomelum mangiferum] 

... 

— 

X 

X 

X 


X 

— 

P Ocean. 

Connarus gibbosus ... 

... 

— 

— 

[X] 

X 


— 

— 


Pneraria Candollei ... 

... 

— 

— 

X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


Pueraria pbaseoloides 


— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Pterocarpusindicus ... 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


30. Denis scandens 


— 

X 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 


Mezoueuron enneapbyllnm 


— 


X 

— 

— 

— 

— 


Adenantbera pavouiua 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Acacia concinna 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Terminalia bialata ... 


— 

— 

>1 

— 

— 

— 

— 


35. *Lagerstroemia bypoleuca 


— 

— 

LxJ 

— 

— 

— 

— 


*Lagerstroemia sp. ... 


— 

* 

[xj 

— 

— 


— 


Illigera conyzadenia... 

... 


— 

[x] 

— 

— 

— 

— 


*Webera Kurzii 


— 

— 

[x] 

— 

— 

— 

— 


Randia longifiora ... 


— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


40. Diplospora singularis 

... 

— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 



Ixora grandifolia ... 

... 

— 

— 

[x] 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Ixora cuneifolia 


— 

-- 

X 

— 


— 

— 


Stropbantbus Wallichii 

... 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 


— 

P Wind. 

Argyreia Hookeri ... 

... 

— 

— 

X 

— 


— 

— 


45. Argyreia laiiceolata ... 

... 

— 

— 

[x] 

— 


— 

— 


Lettsomia peguensis... 

... 

— 


X 






Porana spectabilis ... 


— 


[x] 

— 

— 




Tbunbergia laurifolia 

• ». 



X 

X 






213 































404 


Species. 

Africa. 

S. E. Asia. 

Australia. 

Polynesia. 

America. 

Possibly 

introduced 

by 

India. 

Indo-China. 

ce 

I* 

Strobilaiithes pbyllostacliyus 


. 


X 

. 

_ 

_ 



60. Erauthemum album ... 



[X] 

X 

X 

_ 

— 



Peristropbe acuminata 


— 


[X] 

X 



__ 


Bragantia tomentosa... 


— 

— 

X 

X 

— 

— 

— 


Loranthus longiflurus 


— 

X 

X 

X 

— 


_ 

? Birds. 

Phyllanthus columnaris 


— 

— 

X 

— 

— 


_ 


55. Cyclostemon assamicus 


— 

— 

X 




_ 


Aporosa villosula 



— 

X 

— 

— 




Croton sublyratus 


- 

— 

[x] 

— 

* 

— 

_ 


*Blachia andamanioa 



— 

[xj 




: 

? Ocean. 

Claoxylon longifolium 


— 

— 

[x] 

X 


_ 



60. Mallotns acuminatns... 



— 

[x] 

X 





*Mallotas andamanicns 


_ 

_ 

[x] 

_ 


_ 



Cnesmone javanica ... 



_ 

X 

X 

_ 




*Lmstona sp. 



__ 

[x] 

■ 


- 



*Corypba elata 



_ 

[xJ 

_ 



_ 


65. ^'Calamus andaraanicus 



_ 

[x] 

_ 





*Calamus tigrinus ... 



_ 

X 

_ 


_ 



Alocasia fornioata ... 



X 

X 

X 




? Birds. 

Soindapsus ofldcinalis 



X 

X 

X 

_ 



? Birds. 

Dendrocalamus strictus 


_ 

X 

X 






70. *Xylaria clavarioides 

... 


- 

[x] 

— 

— 


- 



To the 67 unequivocal species of this list 3 other apparently local 
Fungi should perhaps be added; it is, however, extremely probable that 
when they are better known they will be found to exist elsewhere, in 
which case they might be added to the list of wind-distributed species; 
the proportion that results is therefore :— 

Migrant sp : Remanent sp : : 4 : 1. 

It will be noted that not a single species which seems unquestionably 
“remanent” extends beyond South-Eastern Asia, and that the species 
which are here treated as such are only 67 in number, constituting no 
more than 20 per cent., of the flora. Of these species only 21, or 32 per 
cent., occur in India or Ceylon or both, and of these only one {Sterculm 
villosa) has not hitherto been found elsewhere to the east of the Sea of 

Bengal. This “remanent” section of the flora may therefore be looked 
upon as distinctly non-Indian. The point to be ascertained further is 
whether this element indicates more strongly an Indo-Chinese or a 
Malayan influence. Thirteen of the species, indicated in the table by 
an (*) occur only in the Andamans or Nicobars, while seven more occur 
only in Tenasserim on the opposite shores of the Andaman Sea. But 
Tenasserim bears to the Malay Peninsula and Indo-China very much the 



























405 


relationship that the Andaman-Nicohar chain hears to Indo-China and 
the Malay Archipelago, and perhaps neither it nor the Andamans ought 
to be spoken of as physiographically a part either of Indo-China or 
of Malaya;* these 20 species cannot therefore be cited as indicating 
either an Indo-Chinese or a Malayan influence. The purely Indian 
Sterculia villosa must obviously be similaidy excluded ; there are therefore 
21 species, or 32 per cent, of this group, that afford no evidence either 
way. 

Of the remaining species, one-half, i. e., 23 species, or 35 per cent, 
of the whole, occur both in Indo-China and Malaya ; these also give no 
evidence as regards this question. Of the other 23, 15 extend from 
Indo-China to these islands (some of them, like Dendrocalamus strictus, 
not going further than the Coco Group), without extending to Malaya; 
while only 8 extend from Malaya to these islands without occurring in 
Indo-China. The ‘‘remanent” species, therefore, so far as this evidence 
goes, indicate the predominance of an. Indo-Chinese element, a fact 
that is altogether in accordance with wdiat we should expect from our 
knowledge of the configuration of the sea-bottom along the line of islands 
fi-om Cape Negrais in Arracan'to the Nias Islands and Sumatra. 

Reviewing the results of the preceding paragraphs we conclude that 
288 species, or 80 per cent, of the flora, may conceivably have been in¬ 
troduced : 33 species, or 9 per cent., by human agency ; 94 species, or 
28 per cent., by birds ; 60 species, or 17 per cent., by winds and JOl 
species, or 28 per cent., by the sea. We find moreover that the evidence 
is in favour of the bird-introduced species having, so far as those 
brought by wading- and water-birds are concerned, been introduced 
from the north, and so far as those brought by frugivorous and by seed¬ 
er grain-eating birds are concerned, having come in almost equal numbers 
from Malaya or the Andamans to the south, and from Indo-China to 
the north. So far as wind-introduced species are concerned the influence 
of the north-east monsoon is apparently the more active ; so far as the 
sea-introduced species are concerned the influence of currents from 
Malayan seas to the south-east has been paramount. 

The subjoined table gives a synoptic view of the probable origin 
of the Coco Island flora. 

* The writer has proposed the name “ Malay Isthmus ” for-the conjoint area 
that includes Tenasserim, the Andamans and the Nicobars, and believes that it will 
be found convenient to recognise this as a distinct phytogeographical subdistrict. See 
Ann. Boy. Bot. Garden, Calcutta, iii, 238. 


215 


406 


Table XXV. Synopsis of origin of Coco Island flora. 


Species possibly introduced, for the presence of which no former land con¬ 
nection need be necessary :—. 288 

Introduced by living creatures . .. 127 

By human agency ; (largely cosmopolitan species) . 33 

Intentionally; (cultivated plants) . 151 

Unintentionally ; (weeds). I8| 

By birds, (perhaps also to a small extent by bats). 94 


Attached externally to their bodies .. 25 

Immediately; (viscous- or prickly-fruited sp.) 9 
By mud; (species introduced by water-birds, 
mainly from the northward) . 16 

Carried in crops of birds ; (almost in equal propor¬ 
tion from northward and from southward) . 69 

As a natural sequence of their mode of life } 

(fleshy-fruited species) . 55 

Accidentally, where bird must have been 
destroyed to admit of germination of seeds ; 

(by seed- and grain-eating birds) : [in¬ 
directly due to agency of wind] . M 

By other natural agencies... 161 


By wind directly; (sp. with seeds specialised for wind-car¬ 
riage ; also small-spored Cryptogams) .... 60 

By the seaj (mainly Malayan species) . 101 

Marine species ; (mainly AZgice). 21 

Littoral species ; (mangrove-vegetation and beach- 
forest species) . 80! 

Species probably remanent and indicating former connection with adjacent 
land, (apparently Indo-China) :—. 70' 


Total of Coco Island species 


358 


From the Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal for Decemho)', ISO'l. 

156 [Deo. 

On a Botanical visit to Little Andaman and the Nicobars.—By D. 

Prain. 

While awaiting the arrival of the “ Investigator ” at Port Blair in 
November 1890, the writer was invited by Col. Cadell, v. C., Chief 
Commissioner of the Andamans, to visit, in connection with the Botanical 
Survey of India, the islands of Narcondam and Barren Island, two places 
216 



























1891.] 


157 


rarely visited and not previously botanically explored. Having obtained 
the permission of Dr. G. King, f. r. s., the writer was enabled to make 
this visit in the “ Nancotvry ” during March and April 1891. After visit- 
ing Karcondam the steamer was required at Port Blair in order to proceed 
to Little Andaman and Gar Nicobar, and Col. Cadell not only permitted 
the writer to accompany the vessel there, but also, at the suggestion of 
Mr E. H. Man, kindly directed her to proceed to Batti Malv, a small 
island without inhabitants and very difficult of access, lying 18 miles 
south of Car Nicobar. After returning from Batti Malv the steamer 
took the writer to Barren Island. 

The botanical results of the visits to Narcondam and Barren Island, 
which together formed the central feature of the tour, and the botanical 
exploration of which was the writer’s main purpose, will, it is hoped, 
soon be made public. The results of the visits to the islands of Little Anda¬ 
man, Car Nicobar and Batti Malv have been dealt with separately and are 
now laid before the Society. They have been treated in this fashion, 
partly because these visits formed an episode in the tour apart from its 
main object, but chiefly because the lists are less exhaustive, owino- to 
the short time available for collection in each place, than the correspond¬ 
ing lists for Barren Island and Narcondam will be. 

The details of the visits are as follows:—the '‘Nancowry” left 
Port Blair on the moiming of Good-Friday, reaching Bomliya Creek, 
where two natives of Little Andaman, who had been visiting Port Blair, 
were to be landed, about 2 p. m. As the state of the tidal currents made 
it inadmissable to leave again till 5-30, the writer had an opportunity of 
spending three hours collecting at the mouth of the creek and for a 
mile or two along the north coast of the island to the east of this. 
The jungle behind the beach forest was too dense and the time avail¬ 
able too short to admit of his penetrating any distance into the interior. 

The island of Little Andaman, as seen from the sea, presents a 
somewhat different appearance from Great Andaman. Instead of beino- 
diversified by ridges and valleys and isolated hills, it has a long, low 
uniform rounded outline similar to that of Sentinel Island as seen froin 
the top of Mount Harriet near Port Blair, and to that of Car Nicobar. 
It appears, however, to be uniformly covered with forest and to have 
none of the bare grass-heaths that characterise Car Nicobar. The 
creek at which the writer landed is the princip il one on the north coast 
of the island. It derives its name from an Andamanese word meanino* 
“ flies,” and certainly these insects abound there in great numbers and 
are very troublesome. There is nothing in the mangrove swamp vege¬ 
tation to distinguish this from similar places in the Andamans and very 
little in the beach-forest to characterise the island except that Gasu- 

217 


168 


[Deo. 

arina equisetifolia is here very plentiful immediately behind the beach. 
This species, the writer was informed at Port Blair, is equally plentiful in 
the whole circuit of the coast, so much so that the Andamanese name for 
the island is Wirra-Maru, Anglice “ Oasuarina-sand.” In Great Andaman 
this tree, as an indigenous species, is confined to a single bay on the west 
side of North Island. As in Great Andaman there are no Coco-nut 
trees on the coast. On the reefs the chief distinctive features are the 
presence of beds of Halopliila ovalis and considerable quantities of 
Halimeda discoidea. The visit took place between half-tide and full-tide 
and no exposed rocks were seen in the vicinity at the time. 

Leaving about 6 p. m. the “ Nancoivnj ” steamed to Car Nicobar to 
land some men belonging to Kimios village, who had been in prison at 
Port Blair. Sawi Bay was reached on Saturday morning and two men 
of Moos village, with their canoe, were taken on board to assist in landing 
on Batti Malv. Owing to the heavy surf running it was found that land¬ 
ing in Kimios Bay would be very difficult; the vessel therefore, about 
2 p. M , anchored off another village 5 miles to the north and the writer 
was able to land, and walk to Kimios and back, along two jungle paths, 
collecting by the way and getting on board again at dusk. Owing to 
the short time available attention could only be directed to the sea-fence, 
the beach-forest, the under-growth of the Coco-nut zone, and the mere 
outskirts of the interior jungle. Car Nicobar is so well-known that 
no particular notice of its appearance is necessary. There is the usual 
fringing-reef with a sandy beach, behind this the sea-fence, and within 
that a zone of beach-forest, of which the area under Coco-nut trees forms 
an integral portion. The indigenous species ai’e very much like those of 
the Andamans in similar places—the great distiirguishing feature being, 
of course, the wide Coco-nut zone. The Coco-nuts themselves are parti¬ 
cularly fine, and though at Port Blair the finest sorts of Nicobarese and 
Ceylonese Coco-nuts are carefully cultivated they do not equal those of 
Car Nicobar either in flavour or size. Yet those of Car Nicobar are 
said to be by iio means the best that the Nicobars can produce. The 
true interior forest and the grass heaths the writer had no opportunity 
of examining. 

In the night the “ Nancoivry ” proceeded to Batti Malv, which was 
reached at dawn on Easter-day, and the writer, going on shore at once, 
spent the greater part of the day there, collecting. Landing, even with 
the assistance of the Nicobarese and their canoe, was effected with con¬ 
siderable difficulty at the north-west corner of the island, where alone it 
is said to be possible to go on shore. At this point the shore is precipitous, 
sinking into deep water without any coral fringing-reef and rising into 
a jagged wall broken somewhat by gullies and small caverns, nearly 

218 


18&1.] 


169 


everywhere overhanging, and occasionally with tunnelled projecting 
points. This wall is here on an average from 10-15 feet above high- 
water-mark. There was no time to circumnavigate the island, but the 
coast is said to present similar features in its whole circuit, the cliff 
being highest at the south-west corner of the island and being there 
about 50 feet high. 

The difficulty of landing is largely due to this feature of over- 
hanging cliff and is much increased by the strength of the tidal currents 
which, even in calm weather, cause a heavy swell to surge into the 
caverns and along the cliff-face. On reaching the edge of the cliff we 
find, at this pait of the coast, a rocky platform over which the waves 
evidently w'asli in the monsoon. The rock is a limestone, and is, by 
weathering and wave-action, worn into the most fantastic spikes and 
pinnacles and lidges,* the sharp edges of which make walking extremely 
difficult. This platform slopes backwards rather rapidly to a height of 
about 10 feet more when the jungle commences with the ordinary sea- 
fence of Pandanus, etc. ; the platform itself is almost destitute of vegeta¬ 
tion, the only species present in it being tufts of Oldenlayidio, coTynihosa, 
Boerhaavia repens and Fimbristylis diphylla. Within the sea-fence the 
surface of the island is even and almost flat from side to side of the 
island, t 

The commonest tall tree is Mimusops littoralis, which is not here 
confined to the coast-zone, but extends from side to side of the island. 
The jungle is less dense than Andamans and ISTicobar forests usually 
are. There is a wonderful absence of climbing species, especially 
of the class of armed climbers, and there is a remarkably large number 
of species with edible fruits, a feature that doubtless owes its existence 

* This fantastically-weathered limestone so much resembles the bottom of 
a coral-pool that the rock has actually been described as a raised coral-reef. (See 
Hume : The Islands of the Bay of Bengal, in Stray Feathers, vol. ii, p. 95). 

t The Admiralty maps give the island a “ landmark-height ” of 130 feet which 
is doubtless correct, and in some maps it will be seen that a hill is indicated in the 
centre of the island ; this, however, is quite incorrect. The height at the north-east 
corner is, as has been said in the text, about 30 feet ,• at the south-west corner 
the height is said to be about 60 feet; assuming that the whole island has an even 
surface the middle of the island cannot exceed 45 feet. Here, as in all other islands 
exposed to strong monsoons, the trees immediately oh the coast are stunted and 
dwarfed, becoming progressively taller as we pass inland. The principal tree is 
Mimusops littoralis, and even near the shore this often reaches a height of 60 feet, 
while trees a few hundred yards inland reach 80 feet ; this is the common height 
of the tree and one which it rarely exceeds. The height obtained by angular 
measurement from the sea thus not only does not require us to suppose that there 
is a hill in the middle, but shows that there cannot bo anything of the sort and the 
newer maps correctly indicate that the island has a flat surface. 


219 


160 


[Deo. 


to the fact that the island, being so remote and so inaccessible, is|[largely 
frequented by fruit-eating pigeons and is one, (it has been even said, is 
the only), known locality in which the large Wicobars pigeon (Galoenas 
nicobarica) breeds. Fruit-eating bats too are abundant in the island 
and are perhaps partly responsible for the introduction of some of these 
species. Among the more interesting species of this kind is the Batura, 
which in most localities is considered, and probably correctly considered, 
a species introduced by man but which here undoubtedly must be a bird- 
introduced plant. Not only is it an exceedingly rare thing for the 
Nicobarese to visit the island, Batura is not a plant with which they 
are acquainted. The writer, who collected all the possibly introduced 
species to be found in the neighbourhood of the two villages on Car 
Nicobar visited by him did not find it present. Moreover it was apparent¬ 
ly not found either by Mr. Jelinek during the visit of the frigate “ No¬ 
vara ” or by Mr. Kurz during his visit to the Nicobars, and no Solanaaece 
are enumerated in Mr. Kurz’s list of Nicobars plants in the Society’s 
Journal, vol. xlv, part 2, p. 115 et seq. Though uninhabited and apparently 
very rarely visited there are some Coco-nut trees; the nuts are, how¬ 
ever, small and their flavour is rather poor. The few trees that occur are 
just within the Pandanus ieacG, and there is nothing like a Coco-nut zone. 
There is no water on the island; still, besides the bats, there occur, of 
mammalia, both rats and pigs ; the traces of the latter were very com¬ 
mon and one pig’s skull was found in the jungle. The great feature of 
the island, however, is the enormous multitude of Nicobar pigeons. These 
swarm everywhere, in the trees and on the ground, and remind one by 
their numbers of an English “ rookery.”* No snakes were seen, but 
the number and variety of the lizards was very remarkable. 

One of the most striking features of the island was the freshness 
and greenness of the foliage, even in March ; a circumstance that, consi¬ 
dering the nature of the soil, must be altogether explained by the re¬ 
markably heavy dews that are deposited in these latitudes. Landing 
as the writer did, at day-break, he found the leaves quite as heavily 
laden with water as they could possibly have been after a thunder¬ 
shower, and on the side of the island away from the sun the dews had 
not yet become completely dissipated at 10 A. M. 

After spending eight hours on shore the writer, himself, but not the 
island, exhausted, had reluctantly to return to the “ Nancowry ” which 
at once steamed off to the Andamans, reaching Port Blair on Monday 
at noon. 


* For an interesting account of the appearance of the island see Mr. Ilnme’s 
paper already referred to; Stray Feathers, vol. ii, pp. 94—97. 

220 


1891.] 


161 


In the two subjoined lists the plants obtained during this short tour 
are enumerated. The first list gives, for the sake of convenience, those 
collected in Little Andaman. Species for which their occurrence here 
is the first indication of their presence in the Andaman group are disting¬ 
uished by an astei’isk. 

The second list gives the plants obtained in Car Nicobar and in 
Batti Malv. Those for which this is the first record of their occurrence 
in the Nicobars and which are not gxve'o.inih.Q Enumeration of the planh 
of the Nicobar Islands by Mr. Kurz {Journ. As. 8oc. Beng., xlv, pt. 2, 
p. 115—164) are similarly distinguished. 


I. List oe plants collected at Bomlita Creek, north end of 
Little Andaman. 


GUTTIFER^. 

Calophyllum inophtllum Linn. 

MALVACEAE. 

Hibiscus tiliaceds Linn. 

Thespesia populnea Linn. 

STERCULIACE^. 

Sterculia rubiginosa Yent., var. glabrescens King. (Sterculia 
mollis Kurz in Jour. As. Soc. Beng., xlv, pt. 2, 120 not of Wallich.) 

MELIACE^. 

5. Carapa obovata Blume. 

Having seen both G. obovata Bl., and G. malaccensis Lamk. in situ 
and examined them as they grow, it is very difficult for the writer to 
give his assent to the proposition that treats the two as conspecific. 
G. moluccensis is common on rocky coasts, while G. obovata is confined to 
muddy flats, in which it is common, and to mangrove-swamps, of the 
vegetation of which it forms an integral portion. There is no diflS.culty 
with the large suites of specimens that are preserved in the Calcutta 
Herbarium in distinguishing the one plant from the other, and the re¬ 
sidents of Port Blair who know both find it impossible to understand 
why botanists should wish to believe them to be the same. It may be 
that their differences, so palpable to the untrained eye, are altogether due 
to the environment of the two being so different; this, however, if it be 
a fact, can only be demonstrated by experiment and the omis probandi 

221 


162 


[Dec. 


obviously rests with those who would unite, not with those who can 
distinguish, the trees; till the point is settled the writer feels compelled 


to follow Blume in treating them as distinct. In the Andamans Garapa 
moluGcensis flowers in November and December, 0. obovata flowers in 
March and April. 


LEGUMINOS^. 


Desmodium umbellatum DC. 

Abrds PRECATORIUS Linn. 

Erythrina indica Lamk. 

Janavalia turgida Grab, in Wall. Cat. 



This is the common sea-shore Ganavalia of the Andaman, Nicobar 
and Malayan coasts and is undoubtedly the plant intended by Graham 
as G. turgida Wall. Cat. n. 5534 A, a plant collected by Wallich in 
Penang. Cat. n. 5534 B, from Siam (Herb. Finlay son), is not re¬ 
presented at Calcutta but most probably is, since Graham and Wallich 
thought so, the same plant. G. turgida is certainly not identical with G. 
ensiformis, even if we admit that the Ganavalia gladiata, cultivated in the 
Eastern Hemisphere, is conspeciflc with the American cultivated plant; 
nor is it the same as G. virosa W. & A., with which Mr. Kurz has 
identified it (Journ. As. Sue. Beng. xlv, pt. 2, p. 127) and which the 
writer agrees with Mr. Baker in considering the wild form of Ganavalia 
ensiformis (G. gladiata). The intei’ior of the pod, even more than the 
diflei*ent shape, makes the proposal to treat G. turgida and G. virosa 
as conspeciflc quite impossible. Perhaps the confusion of G. turgida with 
G. virosa may have arisen from the fact that Wall. Cat. 5534 C, from Ava, 
is true G. virosa. A reference, however, to the Lithographed Catalogue 
itself shews that Dr. Wallich only doubtfully refers the Ava plant to 
Graham’s species. Mr. Baker doubtfully refers G. Slocicsii Dalz. & 
Gibs., Bomb. El. 69, to G. turgida ; this is, in the writer’s opinion, highly 
impi’obable because 1., G. turgida seems always strictly confined to 
sea-shores and to the banks of muddy estuaries and never has been 
collected inland; and 2, though it extends from the Salt-lakes near 
Calcutta and from the Sunderbuns at the top of the Bay of Bengal to 
the Indo-Chinese and Malayan Coasts generally, it has not yet been 
found anywhere on the coasts of India proper, of Ceylon, or of the 
Laccadives. 

Though a characteristic sea-shore species, G. txirgida is not con- 
specific with the G. obtusifolia of the coasts of India proper, which ap¬ 
parently does not occur in the Andamans, the Nicobars, or the Malay 
Peninsula—on the shox-es of the Andaman sea—, though it does'occur 
in Java (as pointed out by Prof. Miquel) to which island G. kirgida also 
extends. 


222 


1891 .] 


163 


The writer has rot seen fruiting specimens of a Japanese sea- 
coast species identified by Mr. Maximowicz and others with G. obtusifolia 
DC. (0. lineata DC.; DolicJws lineatus Thunbg.) but from two fiowering 
specimens in Herb. Calcutta, it is apparently not specifically identical 
with the Indian 0. obtusifolia figured by Dr. Cleghorn {Madr. Lit. 8oc. 
Journ., n. s., i, t. 4). On the other hand there is no aj^parent difference 
in flowers, leaves or habit, between the Japanese Lolichos lineatus and 
the Indo-Chinese and Malayan Ganavalia turgida. If the fruits are also 
found to agree, and if DoUchos lineatus is the true Ganavalia obtusifolia, 
G. turgida will have to be reduced to G. obtusifolia. If the fruits differ 
G. turgida undoubtedly deserves the specific rank assigned to it by 
Graham, Wallich and Miquel. The name “ G. obtusifolia,’^ it may be 
remarked, is as appropriate to the Indian seashore plant, as it is unsuit¬ 
able to the Japanese littoral G. lineata and to the Indo-Chinese and 
Malayan littoral G. turgida. ^ 

10. VlGNA LUTBA A. Gray. 

Mucuna gigantea DC, 

Derris scandens Benth. 

Derris uliginosa Benth. 

PONGAMIA GLABRA Vent. 

15. Cjisalpinta Bonducella Plem. 

Ctnometra ramiflora Linn. 

RHIZOPHORE^. 

Ceriops Candolleana Am. 

BrUGUIBRA GVMNORHIZA Lamk. 

COMBRETACEiB. 

Terminalia Catappa Linn. 

MYRTACE^. 

20. Barringtonia SPECIOSA Poi’St. 

RUBIACE^. 

Hydnophttum andamanensb Becc., Malesia ii, 156, t. 48, fig. 8_13. 

Webera Kurzii Hook. f. 

Guettarda SPEpiOSA Linn. f. 

IxORA BRUNNESCENS Kurz. 

Add to previous descriptions :—Flowers white, sweet smelling, co¬ 
rolla tube I in. long, teeth A in. long ; berries creamy white with purple 
meridional elongated blotches. 

25, Morinda citrifolia Linn., var. bracteata Hook, f. {II. bracteata 
Roxb.) 


223 


164 


[Dec, 


COMPOSITE. 

Wedelia scandens C. B. Clarke. 

MYRSINE^. 

Ardisia humilis Vabl. (A. Uttoralis Andr.) 

SAPOTACE^. 

Mimusops littoralis Kurz. 

Common here, as elsewhere in the Andamans and Nicohars, in the 
beach forest. Three or fonr lofty trees recently blown down yielded 
from among their topmost branches, the species n. 30, n. 31, n. 43, n. 44, 
n. 45, n. 46, n. 47, n. 63, n. 54, and n. 55 of this list. 

APOCYNE^. 

OCHROSIA BORBONICA Gmel. 

This species is much more frequent in the Andamans than Gerbera 
Odollam, and the fruits, especially when the outer skin is removed and 
only the stringy endocarp is seen, are not distinguishable from those of 
the latter species, 

ASCLEPIADACE^. 

30. Dischidia nummularia R. Br, 

* Dischidia Rafplesiaha Wall. 

Not previously recorded from the Andamans. The ants present here 
in the ascidial leaves were not ‘ harmless ’ as Dr. Wallich found those 
at Singapur to be. 

BORAGINE^. 

CORDIA SUBCORDATA Lamk, 

Very common, 

Todrneportia argentea Linn. 

CONVOLVULACE^. 

Ipomcea denttculata Choisy. 

35. Ipomcea biloba Forst. 


VERBENACE^, 
Premna integrifolia Linn. 
Clerodendron inerme Geertn. 

LAURINE^. 

Hernandia peltata Linn. 

Very common. 

224 


1891 .] 


165 


SANTALACE^. 

Champereia Griffithiana Baill. 

A very common tree in the coast-zone, 30—50 feet high. 


CASUARINEAB. 

40. Castjarina equisetifolia Forst. 

One of the commonest trees in the coast-zone just within the 
Pandamis sea-fence. In Great Andaman this species only occurs in one 
spot, Casuarina Bay, on the west coast of North Andaman. 

CYCADACE^. 

Cycas Rumphii Miq. 

HYDROCHARID^E. 

* Halofhila oyalis R. Br. 

Very common ; this has not previously been met with on Andaman 
reefs. 


ORCHIDACE^. 

* Dendrobiom secundum Lindl. 

This occurs in South Andaman and in the Coco group also. 
Dendeobium tenuicaule Hook. f. 

Also common at Port Blair in South Andaman. 

45. Dendeobium anceps Roxb. 

* Dendeobium terminale Par. & Reichb. f. 

This is also common, along with the preceding, at Port Blair in 
South Andaman. 

Aerides multifloeum Roxb. 


AMARYLLIDACE^. 
Crinum asiaticum Linn. 


LILIACE^. 

Dracjina angustifolia Roxb. 

FLAGELLARIE^. 
50. Flagellaria indica Linn. 

PANDANACE^. 
Pandanus odoratissimus Linn. f. 

NAI ADAGES. 
Ctmodocea ciliata Ehrenb. 


225 


166 


[Dec. 


FILICES. 

Davallta solida Sw. 

Polypodium queucifolium Linn. 

55. POLTPODIUM ADNASCENS Sw. 

Aceostichum scandbns J. Sm. 

ALGiE. 

Saegassdm ilicipolium Agardh. 

Tuebinaeia oenata Lamk. 

Halimeda Opuntia Lamk. 

60.* Halimeda discoidea Dene. 

Padina pavonia Gain. 

II. List op the plants collected in Cae Nicobae and Batti Maly. 

ANONACE^. 

POPOWIA PAEVIPOLIA Kurz. 

Car Nicobar ; Batti Malv. 

MENISPERMACE^. 

Cyclea peltata H. f. & T. 

Batti Malv. 

CAPPARIDE^. 

Gynandeopsis pentaphylla DC. 

Car Nicobar; a weed round the huts of natives at Kimids. 

* Cappaeis ambigua Kurz. 

Batti Malv; a common unarmed climber; previously only known 
from the Andaman group. 


GUTTIEER^. 

5. Calophyllum inophyllum Linn. 

Car Nicobar and Batti Malv. 

MALVACE^. 

SiDA ACUTA Burm, 

Car Nicobar; a weed near Kimids village. 
Ueena lobata Linn. 

Car Nicobar ; a weed near villages. 
Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. 

Car Nicobar and Batti Malv. 

Thbspesia populnea Linn. 

Car Nicobar and Batti Malv. 

226 


1891 .] 


167 


STERCULIAC^. 

10, Sterculia RUBiGiNOSA Vent., var. glabrbscens King. {8. mollis Kurz, 
not of Wallich.) 

Car Nicobar and Batti Malv. 

Melochia velutina Bedd. 

Car Nicobar. 


RUTACE^. 

Gltcosmis pentaphylla Corr. 

Car Nicobar. 

Triphasia trifoliolata DC. 

Car Nicobar. 


AMPELIDE^. 

VlTIS PBDATA Vabl. 

Batti Malv. 

15. Leea sambucina Willd. 

Car Nicobar. 

Leea grandifolia Kurz. 

Batti Malv, veiy common. 

SAPINDACE^. 

Lepidopetalum Jackianum Radik. ( Gupania JacUana Hiern.) 

Car Nicobar, flowering specimens ; Batti Malv ; fruiting specimens. 
There is now no doubt that this species is correctly referred to Lepido¬ 
petalum by Prof. Radlkofer. The flower-buds are oval, pointed ; the 4 
green, lanceolate calyx-segments alternate with 4 extremely small, white 
cordate-acute petals attached to the face of each of which is a sino-le 
large scale, connate by its margins with the edges of the corresponding 
petal and forming along with it a small, peltate-infundibuliform pouch ; 
the stamens are 8 in number with glabrous, slender, short filaments and 
oblong, pilose anthers ; the ovary is 2-celled ; the fruit, reddish-brown 
externally, is bright scarlet within, usually the seed of one of the two cells 
is abortive; the ripe seeds are black, covered with a mucilaginous substance 
and embraced, as to their lower third, in a pink, cup-shaped, thick, fleshy 
arillus. It is one of the favourite fruits with Oalceuas nioobarioa and the 
other frugivorous pigeons. Even if, with Bentham and Hooker, 
Plantar, i, 399), generic rank is not accorded to Lepidopetalum, Hiern’s 
location of the species in Gupania (Flor. Brit. Ind. i, 678) is not valid 
since, as these authors show, Lepidopetalum is more nearly related to 
Butonia, as understood by them, than to Gupania, 


227 


168 


[Dec, 


Allophtlus Cobbe Blume. 

Batti Malv ; the specimens agree exactly wth authentic specimens 
of A. littoralis Blume. 

Erioglossum eddle Blume. 

Batti Malv. 


ANACARDIACE^. 

20. Semecarpcs heterophtlla Blume. 

Batti Malv. 


CONNARACE^. 

* CONNARUS Sp. 

Batti Malv; the specimens are in leaf only, but agree well with 
specimens of an undescribed Connarus from the Nicobars about to be 
published by Dr. G. King in the Annals of the Roy. Rot. Gcirden, Galcuttci, 

LEGDMINOS^. 

Desmodium umbellatgm DC. 

Batti Malv. 

Abrus precatorius Linn. 

Car Nicobar and Batti Malv. 

Ertthrina indica Lamk. 

Car Nicobar. 

25. Canavalia turgida Grab. 

Batti Malv, 

Deruis scandens Bth. 

Batti Malv. 

Derri^ dliginosa Bth. 

Batti Malv. 

SOPHORA TOMENTOSA Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 

C.®SALPINIA Bonducella Elem. (G. Bonduo Kurz, not of Linn.) 
Batti Malv. 

30. Cassia occidentalis Linn. 

Car Nicobar, a weed near Kimios village. 

COMBRETACE^. 

Termisalia Catappa Lamk. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Gyrocarpos Jacquinii Roxb. 

Batti Malv. 

228 


1891 .] 


169 


MYRTACE^. 
Barringtonia speoiosa Porst. 

Batti Malv. 


MELASTOMACEtE. 
Memectlon edule Roxb. var .?—. 

Batti Malv. 

OUCURBITACE^. 
36. * Teichosanthes palmata Roxb. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv, 

* Mukia scabrella Arn. 

Batti Malv. 


CORNAOE^. 

Alangidm sundancm Miq. 

Batti Malv, a very commoa large climber. 

RUBIACEAE. 

* Oldenlandia cortmbosa Linn., var .—. 

Batti Malv, on the bare limestone rocks between the sea and the 
Pandanus fence. The specimens are exactly like those of Hedyotis 
alsincefoUa R. Br. in Wall. Cat. n. 873. 

Webera Kurzii Hook. f. 

Car Nicobar. 

40. Ophioeihiza Mungos Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 

Guettaeda speciosa Linn. 

Batti Malv. 

IXORA BRUNNESCENS Kurz. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

IXORA CDNEIFOLIA Roxb. 

Car Nicobar. 

IxORA CUNEIPOLIA Roxb., var. MAOROOARPA Kui’Z. 

Batti Malv. 

45. Morinda citripolia Linn., var. beaoteata Hook. f. (M bracteata 
Roxb.) 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

MuSS.ffiNDA MACROPHTLLA Wall. 

Car Nicobar. 

P.ffiDERIA FOETIDA Linn. 

Batti Malv. 


229 


170 


[Dec. 


COMPOSITE. 

Wedelia scandens C.B. Clarke. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

GOODENOVIEJ^. 
Sc.ffiV 0 LA KffiNiGir Vahl, 

Batti Malv. 


MYRSINE^. 

50. Aedisia humilis Vabl. (A. littoralis Andr.) 
Car Nicobar, Batti Malv, 

SAPOTACE^. 
Mimtjsops littoealts Kurz, 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

EBENACE^, 
Diosptros Kuezii Hiern, 

Batti Malv. 

APOCYNEtE, 

OCHEOSIA BOEBONICA Gmel. 

Car Nicobar. 

Tabeenjimontana ceispa Roxb, 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

55. Paesonsia spiealis R. Br, 

Car Nicobar. 


ASCLEPIADACE^. 

DisCHIDIA Gripfithii Hook, f. ? (D. hengalensis Kurz, not of 

Colebr.) 

Car Nicobar. There are no authentic exaruples of D. Griffithii at 
Calcutta, with which to compare the plant obtained by the writer in Car 
Nicobar, and by Mr. Jelinek in Kamorta and Katschall. There are 
specimens of Novara n. 115 at Calcutta, and an examination of these 
shows that they are precisely the same as the present Car Nicobar plant 
and that they have been erroneously referred by Mr, Kurz to D. ben- 
galensis. The Nicobars plant has a hirsute corolla throat, the corolla- 
throat in D. hengalensis is glabrous. 

loganiaceh:. 

Steychnos acuminata Wall, 

Batti Malv. 

230 


1891 .] 


171 


BORAGINE^. 

CoRDiA SUBCORDATA Lamk. 

Batti Malv. 

Todrneportta argentba Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 


CONVOLVULACE^. 

60. Ipom(ea denticulata Choisy. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Ipomcba ctmosa Roem. & Scbult. 

Car Nicobar. 

IpOMfflA BILOBA Forsk. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Convolvulus parviplorus Vabl. 

Batti Malv. 

SOLANACE^. 

* SoLANUM Mblongena Linn. 

Car Nicobar; near huts of natives at Kimids. 

65. * Datura pastuosa Linn. 

Batti Malv; interesting as an addition to the Nicobar Flora and 
as proving from its presence in this island that human agency is not 
always necessary to account for the dispersal of the species. 

ACANTHACE^. 

Eranthemum cinnabarinum Nees, var. succisipolium Clarke. (E 
succifoUum Kurz). 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Peristrophe acuminata Nees. 

Car Nicobar. 

VERBENACE^. 

Premna integripolia Linn. 

Batti Malv. 

Clerodbndeon inerme Gaertn. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

70. Clerodenuron paniculatum Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 

Callicarpa longipolia Lamk. 

Car Nicobar. 


231 


172 


[Deo. 


LABIATE. 

* OciMUM Basilicum Linn. 

Car Nicobar ; a weed near Kimios village. 

The dispersal of the species of this genus—the Tulsi plants—is some¬ 
what curious. In Kamorta, Katschall and Nancowry, where Hindu 
convicts have been stationed, it is the true or sacred Tulsi (0. sanctum) 
that has become naturalised. Here, where no Hindus have lived, it is 
0. Basilicum that is grown by the natives, to whom one Tulsi is as good 
as another. In the Laccadives, where the people are Mussulmans, 
and to whom the sacred Tulsi does not specially appeal, it is the Bam 
Tulsi (0. gratissimum) that occurs. 

NYCTAGINE.^. 

Boerhaavia EEPENb Linn. 

Batti Malv, on the rocks outside the Pandanus sea-fence. 

* PiSONIA ACULEATA Linn. 

Batti Malv. 

75. * PisONiA ALBA Spanoghe. 

Batti Malv. 

* PisoNiA EXCELSA Blume. 

Batti Malv. 

AMARANTACE.^. 

* Amaeantus spinosus Linn. 

Car Nicobar, near Kimios village. 

* Achyeanthes aspera Linn. 

Car Nicobar, a weed near Kimios village. Only the sea-shore 
variety, (A. porphyristachya Wall.^ has hitherto been known to occur 
in the Nicobars ; it was obtained by Mr. Jelinek of the “ Novara.” 

.^RUA LANATA JuSS. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 


LAURINE^. 

80. Hernandia peltata Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 

ARISTOLOCHIACE.^. 
* Aeistolochia tag ala Cham. & Schlecht. 
Batti Malv. 

EUPHORBIACE^. 
Euphorbia Atoto Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 

232 


.1891.] 


173 


Glochidion OALOOARPUM Kurz. 

Car Nicobar. 

Fluegqea microcarpa Blurae. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

85. Bretnia oblongifolia Muell.-Arg. 

Car Nicobar. 

Bridelia tomentosa Blame. 

Car Nicobar. 

Alchornea eugosa Muell.-Arg. 

Car Nicobar. The specimens agree exactly with authentic examples 
of A. javensis Muell.-Arg. 

Claoxtlon L0N61F0LIUM Muell.-Arg. 

Car Nicobar. 

Claoxylon molle Endl. 

Batti Malv. 

90. * Gelonium ? sp. 

Batti Malv. The specimens are without fruit and perhaps do not 
belong to this genus. They differ from anything hitherto reported from 
the Nicobars. 


URTICACE-^. 

PiPTURTJS VELUTiNiJS Wedd. 

Car Nicobar. 

Ficus hispida Linn., var. djimonum Kcenig. 
Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Ficus Rumphii Vahl. 

Batti Malv. 


CYCADACE^. 

Ctcas Rumphii Miq. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

PALMED. 

95. Cocos NUCIFERA Linn. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Areca Catechu Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 

PANDANACEAB. 

Pandanus odoeatissimus Linn. f. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 


233 


174 


[Dec. 


LILIACE^. 

Dracjina angubtifolia Roxb. 

Oar Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

AMARAYLLIDACE^. 
Ceinum asiatioum Linn. 

Batti Malv. 

ELAGELLARIE^. 
100. Flagellaria indica Linn. 

Batti Malv. 


ORCHIDACE^. 

Sarcanthus ? sp. 

Batti Malv. The specimen is in fruit only. 
Eulophia graminea Lindl. (E. decipiens Kurz.) 
Car Nicobar. 


NAIAD ACE^. 
Cymodocea ciliata Ehrenb. 

Car Nicobar. 


CTPERACE^. 

Ctperus pennatus Lamk. 

Batti Malv. 

105. Fimbristtlis diphtlla Vahl. 

Batti Malv, on rocks between the sea and the Pandanus belt. 

GRAMINEA. 

Panicum filipes Nees. 

Car Nicobar. 

ISCH.EMUM MUTICUM Retz. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Eragrostis plumosa Linn. 

Car Nicobar. 


FILICES. 

Polypodium quercifolium Linn. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

110. Polypodium adnascens Swartz. 

Car Nicobar, Batti Malv. 

Polypodium phymatodes Linn. 

234 



1891 .] 


175 


Car Nicobar, 

Ltgodium flexgosum Swartz. 
Car Nicobar. 


ALG^. 

Sargassum ilicifolium Agardh was the only seaweed seen on 
Batti Malv. About a dozen seaweeds were obtained on Car Nicobar; 
they have not yet been determined. 


From the Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal for April, 1892. 
1892.] 109 

3. Remarks on the Fauna of Narcondam and Barren Island.— By 
D. Brain. 

During a botanical visit to these two islands, the results of 
which are now being elaborated, the writer, though unable and 
indeed unqualified to devote much attention to their fauna, could not 
avoid coming in contact to some extent with their animal and insect 
life. And perhaps his few rough notes made at the time, if thrown 
into a connected form, may induce by their perusal some qualified 
animal biologist to visit and investigate them thoroughly. In Mr. 
Mallet’s exhaustive monograph of the geological structure and physio- 
graphical aspects of the islands* their flora and fauna are only 
casually mentioned ; similarly, in the writer’s forthcomiag notice of their 
vegetation, there can be but incidental allusions to their topography, 
geology, or zoology. Yet from what the writer was himself able to 
observe it is probable that their zoology will prove as interesting as 
their geology or their botany. It need hardly be said that the notes 
which follow allude entirely to aii*-breathing creatures and that no 
reference will be made to the marine fauna of the localities. 

Mammalia ;—A rat swarms everywhere on both islands and is the 
most plentiful mammal present. Examples preserved in the Indian 
Museum, obtained in Barren Island by Mr. Oldham, show that the 

* Memoirs of the Geol. Survey of India, vol, xxi, pp. 251—28(3. 


235 


110 [April, 

species is the Andamanese form of the widely distributed Tree-Rat 
(Mus rattus VAU. andamanensis.)* 

In Rarcondam at dusk a frugivorous hat was observed flitting from 
tree to tree, and in Barren Island the writer came upon an example of 
Ficus Bumphii, on the outer aspect of the outer cone and about half a 
mile to the north of the landing place at the hot-spring, which was the 
home of a colony of these creatures. The writer was able to reach a 
point on the cliff almost overlooking the tree and where he was not 
more than twenty-five yards away from the bats. He was able to see 
that they were of a very dark brown (almost black) colour but, having 
no fowling-piece, he could not secure a specimen.f It is not improbable 
that, as in the case of the rats, the bats on the two islands belong to 
the same species. 

Goats have more than once been landed on both islands. On Har- 
condam there were however none to be seen and when one recollects 
that for a considerable portion of the year the island is absolutely water¬ 
less the fact is not surprising. And those formerly landed on Bai’ren 
Island must also have perished, for a few years ago. Col. Tucker, then in 
charge of the Andamans, found it necessary to land five more. During 
our visit we several times saw three goats in company and as we dis¬ 
covered among the lava blocks the skeletons of two others it is not im¬ 
possible that we were thus able to account for the whole five. The three 
seen together were all adults, perhaps ^'herefore they have either not 
begun to breed or their young have been unable to survive. A well- 
trodden foot-path across the lava causeway near the landing-place 
shows that the goats come daily, at least during the dry season, to drink 
at the only spring the island possesses, hot-water charged with over 200 
grains per gallon of saline matter. J Each morning during the writer’s 


* Gatal. of Mammalia in the Indian Museum, pt. ii, p. 63. 

t Had a specimen been shot it probably conld not have been secured, for a direct 
descent from the writer’s position to the foot of the tree was impracticable and to 
reach the spot where the specimen must have fallen wonld have entailed :—1, a return 
to the landing-place (two hours work to begin with) ; 2, rowing half a mile to the mouth 
of the galley in which the tree stood ; and (granting that the sea-mouth of the proper 
gulley was hit off and, if it was, that a landing could have been effected—neither 
event being at all a necessary consequence,) 3, a search for the particular tree in¬ 
volving a climb of over 800 feet through a particularly difHoult jungle with much 
the same prospect of ultimate success that there would be in the proverbial search 
for “ a needle in a haystack.” But this should only whet the appetite of the true 
collector for a visit to the islands; it will however show that the geologist or 
botanist who visits the place with but a limited time at his disposal, must confine hia 
attention to his own subject and can do but dilettante work in any other direction, 

3; Memoirs of the Geol. Survey of India, vol. xxi, p. 277. 

236 


1892.] 


HI 


visit we cotild see when we landed, from the new foot-prints on the wet 
sand round the spring and from the fresh dung there and along the 
pathway, that the goats had visited the spot overnight.* 

Birds : —A brief sketch of the Avi-fauna of the islands has already 
been written by Mr. A. 0. Hume.f His visit to each island was how¬ 
ever very short; it may not therefore be uninteresting to give a list 
of the birds seen by him and to mention in addition those seen and 
recognised by the writer. It is unnecessary to say that even now the 
list must be very far from complete. 

List of the Birds of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

1. CUNCUMA LEUCOGASTBR Gmel. (White-bellied Sea-Eagle.) Stray 
Feathers ii, 149. 

Very plentiful in both islands, bat especially in Narcondam, where 
to watch six or eight of them sweep and wheel and dart at each other, 
apparently in play, far overhead, was a most fascinating occupation. 
While ascending the mountain that composes the island we saw what 
was evidently the nest of this species at about 1,500 ft. elev. 

Distrib. India, Burma, Andamans, Hicobars, Malaya. 

2. COLLOCALIA Linchi Horsf. (Rock Swiftlet.) Stray Feathers ii, 

157. 

A swiftlet is very common on both islands and can be seen as one 
rows along the coast darting in and out from every cavern hollowed by 
the sea under the old lava-flows. As no edible birds’-nests are found 
on either island this is most probably the species that one observes. J 

Distrib. Andamans, Hicobars, Malaya. 

* The landing of goats on such islands has little to recommend it from the 
economic point of view while the humanitarian aspect of the act has two sides. It 
is no doubt praiseworthy to attempt to stock such islands with goats in the hope 
that their flesh may prove of use to shipwrecked mariners, but to deliberately condemn 
the animals to a death by thirst—as is done every time that goats are landed onNar- 
condam—appears to the writer to be an act which should not be repeated. Nor is 
it at all certain that the landing of goats on Barren Island may not be—all the 
physical conditions of the island considered—an act of even more refined cruelty. 

f Stray Feathers, vol ii, pp. 103 — 110. The localities are again mentioned in 
connection with the birds themselves in Mr. Hume’s detailed list of Andamans 
birds, 1. c. pp. 139-324. 

t It ought to be observed however that some recent writers, (very notably 
Guillemard, in the Cruise of the Marchesa, ii, 87), return to the view which Hume, 
1. c,, so strenuously opposes and apparently satisfactorily refutes, that Gollocalia 
Linchi is the swift which makes edible nests. If Guillemard be right then the 
Rock Swiftlet referred to by Mr. Hume and the writer must be a different species. 

237 


112 [Api?tL, 

3. Halcyon atricapillls Gmel. (Small Kingfisher.) Stray Fea¬ 
thers u, 168; also p. 104. 

This, Mr. Hume says, 1. c. p. 104, is most probably the Kingfisher 
he obserYed on Barren Island. Oddly enough the writer saw no King¬ 
fisher on Barren Island, but several individuals, perhaps of this species, 
were very actively employed on the coast at the north-east corner of 
Harcondam. 

Distrib. India, Burma, Andamans, Hicobars, 

4. Rhtticeros Haecondami Hume. (The Narcondam Hornbill). 
Stray Feathers i, 411 ; ii, 176. 

This species, which is confined to Narcondam, is exceedingly plenti¬ 
ful there. It is very far from shy, for on one occasion when the writer 
and his attendants were busy cutting down a tree, three or four of 
these birds, apparently attracted by the noise, came and settled above us, 
continuing to scream and chatter overhead, while the tree vibrated 
under our strokes, for some time before making up their minds to fly 
away. 

Distrib. Endemic. 

5. Palaeornis appinis Tytler. (Red-cheeked Andaman Paroquet.) 
Stray Feathers ii, 184. 

Common on both islands. 

Distrib. Andaman group, including Coco Islands and Preparis. 

6. Eudtnamys malayana Cab. (Andaman Koel). Stray Feathers 
ii, p. 192. 

The writer saw this Koel several times during his stay on Narcon¬ 
dam ; Mr. Hume did not happen to have an opportunity of noting the 
species. 

Distrib. India, Burma, Andamans, Nicobars, Malaya. 

7. Arachnechthra andamanica Hume. (Andaman Sun-Bird). 
Stray Feathers ii, 198. 

Observed by Mr. Hume on both islands, not seen by the writer. 

Distrib. Andaman group, including Coco Islands and Preparis. 

8. Otocompsa emeria Shaw. (Red-Whiskered Bulbul.) Stray 
Feathers ii, 225. 

Observed by Mr. Hume on Barren island, not seen by the writer. 

Distrib. India, Burma, Andamans, Nicobars (introduced). 

9. CoRVUS Levaillantii Lesson. (The Bow-billed Corby). Stray 
Feathers ii, 243. 

The writer one day noticed five of these large Andaman Crows 

238 


1892.] 


113 

on Barren Island. There were none there apparently when Mr. Huino 
visited the island. 

Distrib. Himalaya; India; Burma, Andamans; Malaya. 

•• 260^' (I^iperial Pigeon.) Stray Feathers, 

Noticed once on Narcondam. 

Distrib. Himalaya ; India ; Indo-China, Andamans ; Malaya. 

11. Carpophaga bicolor Scop. (Pied Pruit-Pigeon.) Strav Fea¬ 
thers ii, 260. 

Exceedingly plentiful on both islands ; a visitant from the south¬ 
ward. 

Distrib. Malaya; Nicobars ; Andamans (a visitant). 

12. Caloenas nicobarica Linn. (The Nicobars Fruit-Pigeon.) 

Noticed several times on Narcondam, and once (three individuals 

together) on Barren Island, on the inner aspect of the outer crater to 
the south of the landing-place ; a visitant from the Nicobars. 

Distrib. Nicobars ; Malaya : Andamans (a visitant). 

13. CIRREPIDESMUS MORGOLicus Pallas. (Mongolian Shore-Plo¬ 
ver.) Stray Feathers ii, 289. 

Rather common on both islands. 

Distrib. Eastern Asia. 

14. Tringoides htpoleuces Linn. (Sand-Piper.) Stray Feathers 
ii, 299. 

Very common on both islands. 

Distrib. Cosmopolitan. 

15. Gallinula phoenicura Penn. (Water-Hen.) 

Barren Island. This was not met with by Mr. Hume and it is not 
a bird that one would expect to see in these islands. Tet each time we 
landed on Barren Island and each time we returned to the beach from 
the interior we observed in the vicinity of the small hot-spring at the 
landing-place what appeared to us to be the same individual of this 
species. On being disturbed it walked leisurely away and disappeared 
among the crevices of the adjacent black lava-flow. Mr. Hume notes 
his having met with the species in suitable localities everywhere from 
the G-reat Coco to'Acheen ; we must therefore suppose that the indivi¬ 
dual we saw had by some accident reached the island from one of the 
neighbouring members of the group and was making the best of the 
situation. 

Distrib. India ; Indo-China, Andamans ; Nicobars, Malaya. 

239 


114 [April, 

16. Demiegretta sacra Gmel. (Blue Reef-Heron.) Stray Feathers 
ii, 304. 

Common on both islands. 

Distrib. India, Burma, Andamans, Nicobars. 

17. ArdeOla Cratii Sykes. (Pond-Heron.) Stray Feathers ii, 

309. 

Barren Island only (llume) ; not seen by the writer. 

Distrib. India ; Andamans (a visitant). 

18. Stbrnula melanaughen Temm. (Snowy Tern.) Stray Fea¬ 
thers ii, 319 ; also p. 107. 

Barren Island (Hume). 

Distrib.* Malaya ; ISTicobars ; Andamans. 

The common Fowl is said to have been landed on both islands 
along with the goats, there is now, however, no trace of its existence. 
Possibly the large lizard— Hydrosaurus salvator —which is common, at 
least on Narcondam, may be held responsible for its disappearance, no- 
being more certain than that a fowl, if nesting on the ground, 
must sooner or later fall a victim to this voracious creature. 

Reptiles :—There is on Narcondam at least one land-snake, for the 
writer and his companion (Mr. McCausland, commander of the “ Nan- 
cowry”) came upon one cast-off skin in the centre of the island. 

Lizards, both igiianiform lizards and skinques, are very common 
on Narcondam though not at all frequent on Barren Island. The whole 
of the crested ones were very shy but the skinques were the reverse of 
timid.f The large water-lizard, Hydrosaurus salvator, is very common 
on Narcondam and is so unused to being disturbed that it waits till one 
comes so close as to be able to touch it before turning aside into the 
jungle. It was most common near the north bay where there is a small 
sandy beach frequented by turtles. Doubtless here, as elsewhere, the 

* In this list of birds only the distribution within the limits of South-Eastern 
Asia (India and Ceylon; Indo-China; Malaya and Northern Australia) is given, a 
more detailed account of the distribution for the few that extend beyond this area 
being, for our present purpose, unnecessary. 

+ Having one forenoon crossed the island from the landing-place near the 
anchorage at the north-east corner to the north bay the writer with his companion 
(Mr. Kellog, Gunner of the “ Nancoiory ") rested for lunch in the shade of the Coco¬ 
nut grove there ; while eating we were amused to watch the'skinques prospecting 
for the crumbs that fell aside ; after a little—we in the meantime sitting as still 
as possible—some of the bolder or more confident lizards climbed our legs in search 
of more. We observed besides that others of them disputed with the hermit-crabs 
which swarmed there for a share of the nutty portion of some opened coco-nuts 
that we had thrown aside after drinking the “ milk.” 

240 


1892.] 


115 


eggs of the turtle form one of the staple foods of the Hydrosaunis, to 
the omnivorus propensities of which the writer has already had occasion 
to allude.* In Barren Island none of these lizards were seen hut it is 
not at all improbable that they are present, for there are two small bays 
at the south-west corner where there are sandy beaches with a Pandanus 
fence and some Coco-nut trees behind. Owing to the strong swell and 
heavy surf the writer was unable to land at either of these places, nor 
did he succeed in crossing the outer cone at a point whence he could reach 
them from the interior. It is, however, not at all unlikely that turtles 
visit these sandy patches and, if so, there is no doubt that, if Rydro- 
saurtis exists on the island, he will he in evidence there. 

Crustaceans ;—Besides hermit-crabs, which are very plentiful, there 
are, at least on Barren Island, land-crabs.f And, as might be sur¬ 
mised, Grapsus is plentiful on the rocks along the coast and is a source 
of interest to the Blue Reef-Heron and some of the other sea-fowl. 

Other Air-Breathing Creatures The writer did not see a single 
beetle on Barren Island, but perhaps the season of his visit (March— 
April) had something to do with their absence. One or two were met 
with on Harcondam—the specimens obtained including, amongst others, 
a Golden-Beetle. 

Spiders are common on both islands, particularly on Harcondam, 
where also a scorpion is to be found. It was, however, only seen once, 
when digging up an Amorphophallas tuber, and was not preserved. J 

Ants are very common, the two chief kinds being the common red 
mango-ant, or a species very like it, both physically and physiologically; 
and a very small species that makes long powdery tunnels along the 
outside of, and sometimes also makes its home inside, the stems and 
branches of various shrubs, e. g., it is common to find it inside living 
branches of a species of Leea and of two species of Ficus (F. hrevicuspis 
and F. hispida var. daemonum. 

Among insects, besides a sand-fly and a mosquito, whose pres¬ 
ence goes without saying, there is a very striking form, only 
noticed however in Barren Island, in the shape of a small hornet which 
builds sometimes a discoid nest composed of single cells, mouth down¬ 
wards, in juxtaposition, and sometimes a long narrow nest of single 

* Joum. As. Soc. Beng. vol. lx, pt. 2, p. 403, [footnote]. 

t Land-crabs were not obseiwed either on Narcondam or on Barren Island, bnt 
Mr. Wood Mason has very kindly shown the writer specimens of a laud-crab that 
are preserved in the Indian Museum; these were obtained in Barren Island by Mr. 
Oldham. 

X The writer’s native collector promptly treated it as vermin, and ere a protest 
could be uttered had crushed it between two stones. 


241 


1]6 


[April, 


cells in one or two rows on the nnder-snrface of slender twigs.* Its 
sting is very sharp at the time ; fortunately the irritation passes off al¬ 
most completely in half-an-hour or so ; unfortunately the nests are very 
numerous on all the drier slopes where there is any jungle. 

Butterflies are not numerous in either island. On hTarcondam one 
species {Cynthia erota) is plentiful, and another (Huphina Uchinosa) is 
common; the other species are, at least at the season of the writer’s visit, 
but poorly represented. On Barren Island all the species seen are, at 
that season, particularly scarce. The writer collected on Narcondam a 
few of most of the kinds seen, and during his visit to Barren Island he 
had the pleasure of the company of Mr. R. Wimberley, of the Port Blair 
Commission, whose ardour as a lepidopterist is well-known to his Indian 
brethren. As Mr. Wimberley came on purpose to collect the butterflies 
of Barren Island the writer paid but little attention to them ; he had 
hoped that Mr. Wimberley might prepare a note, which could not fail 
to be highly interesting, on the species he had collected. Mr. Wimberley 
has not seen his way to do this; he has, however, most obligingly 
supplied the writer with a list of the species obtained by him ; this 
list is given below verbatim. As regards the specimens collected on 
Narcondam the writer has had the privilege of the kind assistance of 
Mr. dehiiceville, who has most obligingly examined the small collec¬ 
tion and named the species.f 

List of Butterflies seen on Barren Island. 

(Prepared by Mr. R. Wimberley, Port Blair.) 

1. Htpolimnas bolina Linn. c? two. 

2. Nacaduba ccelestis DeNicev, Several. 

3. Casi’alius (species, could not tell). 

* To tbe writer’s perhaps prejudiced imagination it appeared that it preferred 
making its nest on Capparis sepiaria to building elsewhere. The arrangement is 
excellent; an outlying sprawling branch hooks itself unobserved to one’s leg or one’s 
arm ; the next movement sets the whole bush a-shaking and before one is aware 
his head and face form objects of attack for a whole army of angry wasplets. The 
nests, from their shape and situation, are particularly difficult to see, and after 
forming the firmest resolve to be more wary next time, one only knows that he has 
blundered into another nest when it is necessary to pick the creatures off his face 
and from out his hair. So far from trying to obtain specimens our principal object 
was to keep out of the creature’s way. 

f While thanking Mr. de Nic^ville for his kindness in naming this small collec¬ 
tion, the writer would take this opportunity of mentioning that Mr. de Niceville has 
also kindly pointed out that the butterfly mentioned in Jour. Ms. 8oa. Beng. lix, 
pt. 2, p. 256, as feeding on Galotropis gigantea, and as a recent introduction into the 
Andamans is not Danais genutia, as there stated, but Banais chrysippus, 

242 




1892.] 


117 


4. Arhopala centaurus Fabr. $ one. 

5. Hebomoia Roepstorpii Wood-Mason. Several. 

6. IxiAS andamana Moore. Several. 

7. Huphina nama Moore. Two or three. 

Unfortunately Mr. Wimberley does not say if it is the Andamans 
race {coruscans) of ArJiopala centaurus, or one of the other local forms, 
that he obtained. 

Besides the species in Mr. Wimberley’s list the writer observed 
two others on Barren Island. One of these was the common “ Wan¬ 
dering Snowflake” (Leptosia xiphia) which was seen in a gulley on 
the east side of the island on the outer aspect of the outer cone ; 
in the same gulley the wings of a bird-eaten example of a very bright 
Lycaenid were picked up. From this it will be seen that our knowledge 
of Barren Island butterfles is capable of further extension. The same 
remark applies with perhaps even greater force to the list of Narcondam 
butterflies which follows :— 


List of Butterflies seen on Narcondam. 

(Of the species marked ( ! ) specimens have been examined and named by Mr. 
L. de Niceville.) 

1. Cynthia erota Fabr. ! 

Several of both sexes caught. This is the commonest butterfly on 
Narcondam, the male being much more usual than the female though 
both are “abundant.” Mr. Wimberley and the Revd. Mr. Latham- 
Browne have informed me that though not rare, the species is not 
“ abundant ” in South Andaman and that there it frequents damp hol¬ 
lows. In Narcondam it is plentiful everywhere from sea-level up to 800 
—850 feet elevation. 

Distrib. N. E. India; Burma ; Andamans. 

2. Parthenos gambrisius Fabr.! 

Distrib. Eastern Bengal; Indo-Ohina ; Andamans ; Malay Penin¬ 
sula. 

3. Lampides elpis Godart.! 

One male. 

Distrib. Himalaya (Sikkim) ; India ; Burma; Andamans ; Malaya. 

4. Catochrtsops cnejus Fabr.! 

One female. 

Distrib. India; China; Indo-China; Malaya; Andamans and 
Nicobars ; Australia ; Polynesia. 


243 


118 


[April, 


5. Leptosia xiphia Fabr. 

One specimen cangbt on high ground near the north end of the 
island. IS'ot previously found in the Andamans, though a distinct 
form (vAR. nicolarica Doherty) occurs in the Nicobars. 

Distrib. India; Indo-China ; Malaya. 

6. Huphina lichinosa Moore ! 

One female ; after Cynthia erota the commonest butterfly. 

Distrib. India; Indo-China ; Malaya ; Andamans. 

7. IxiAS AKDAMANA Moore. 

Seen during our ascent of the peak at about 1,200 feet eleva¬ 
tion ; no example was obtained. 

Distrib. Andamans. 


By reviewing the distribution of the birds and butterflies (of which 
two groups, so far as these remarks go, anything precise is known) ive 
may perhaps form some idea of the general relationship of the fauna of 
these two islands to that of the nearest adjacent lands. For it is ex¬ 
tremely probable that, though neither group is completely detailed in 
its list, these lists nevertheless are representative. And it is equally 
probable that most of the groups of air-breathing creatures will, when 
thoroughly known, be found to owe their presence here to the agencies 
that are accountable for the presence of the species enumerated. 

The two islands, though spoken of ordinarily as members of the 
Andaman group, are only to be admitted as such with a very consider¬ 
able qualification, since in reality they belong to quite a different physio- 
gi-aphical system from that to which the Andamans proper are to be 
referred. 

The Andamans themselves are, as in well-known, undoubtedly a 
continuation of the chain of tertiary sandstone hills known as the Yomah 
of Arracan, the connecting links being Diamond Island off the south 
coast of Arracan, Preparis Island and the Coco Group, the same system 
of peaks reappearing with certain limitations and modifications* in some 


* For example, at the southern end of Great Andaman there are to be found, 
besides the sandstone about Port Blair which is exactly like that of the Coco Group 
and of Diamond Island, a difEerent kind of sandstone rock in the “ Archipelago ” to 
the north-east of Port Blair and a coralline limestone in the “ Sentinels ” to the 
south-west; whether the “ Archipelago” sandstone recurs in the Nicobars the writer 
is unable to say, the “ Sentinel ” limestone undoubtedly does, e. y., in Batti Malv. 

244 


1892.] 


119 


at least of the Nicobar Islands. Beyond the Nicobar group this system 
is continued southwards, not as is commonly said, (and perhaps generally 
supposed), into Sumati’a, hut into the Nias, a chain of islands lying along 
the west coast of Sumatra. 

The two volcanic islands under discussion—as well as a third peak. 
Flat Rock, which reaches the surface but no more at a point some 50 
miles south of Barren Island—are separated from the Andaman chain 
proper by a strip of sea 90 miles wide and over 1,000 fathoms in depth. 
In all probability therefore we see in these islands a northward con¬ 
tinuation of the chain of volcanoes that stretches upwards from Flores and 
Sambawa though the whole length of Java and of Sumatra to Barren 
Island and Narcondam and perhaps even beyond them to the extinct 
volcanic peaks of Popah in Upper Burma and of Han-Shuen-Shan in 
Western Yunnan. But even if this be true there is little doubt that 
both Barren Island and Narcondam conform essentially to the class of 
“ Oceanic ” islands and never have possessed any previous land-connection 
with neighbouring islands either to the south or to the west, or with con¬ 
tinental Asia to the North-east. The present physical conditions in 
Narcondam appear moreover to be very ancient; there is no trace of a 
crater at the top of its peak* which rises 2,330 feet above the level of 
the Andaman Sea, and the whole island is clad with a dense jungle 
much richer in species than the forest on Barren Island is. But though 
the present biological features of Barren Island are of much more 
modern aspect, is it not necessary to consider that island as really less 
ancient than Narcondam. The topography of its outer cone, combined 
with the historical fact of recent activity on the part of the volcano, 
points to the possibility of some catastrophe similar to that which 
devastated Krakatau having once happened in Barren Island. And if 
this has been the case it would follow that the island must have re¬ 
quired, even if previously covered with vegetation, to be stocked de novo 
with vegetable and animal life. Still, granting that the present fauna 
and flora of Barren Island are of more recent introduction than those 
of Narcondam, the fact remains that we must look upon every species 
present, even in the island with the older biological features, as an 
immigrant one. 

Dealing first with the birds since these may include both voluntary 
and involuntary immigrants, we And that of the eighteen species enum¬ 
erated, the Sea-Eagle, all the sea- and shore-fowl, the three Fruit-Pi¬ 
geons and the large Corby, making altogether ten species, or 55 per 

* The appearance of the hill indicates however that there never has been a 
crater. 


245 


120 


[April? 


cent, of the list, are probably deliberate visitants. And tbongb the Sea- 
Eagle has become a permanent resident and breeds on the spot, perhaps 
most of the others are still seasonal visitants and nothing more. This is 
certainly the case with the Fruit-Pigeons, two of which, Garpophaga 
bicolor and Galoenas nicoharica come annually from the hlicobars or from 
Malaya; the third, Garpophaga cenea, may come from Malaya or from 
Indo-China. Equally is this the case with Pond-Heron, which is a visit¬ 
ant from India, and it may be the case with the Sand-Plover and the 
Sand-Piper which are, in all probability, visitants from the north, and 
with the Snowy-Tern which is probably a visitant from the south. 
Perhaps the Blue Beef-Heron, though probably at first a deliberate 
immigrant, is now, like the Sea-Eagle, a permanent resident. 

The Rock-Swiftlet and the Small King-fisher may either have come 
deliberately or may have been driven by stress of weather to the islands. 
The former is now certainly, the latter is probably, a permanent resi¬ 
dent. The Swiftlet, if driven here involuntarily, must have been an 
immigrant under the influence of the south-west monsoon, the King¬ 
fisher may have reached the island under the influence of either the 
south-west or the north-east monsoon. 

The Water-Hen may also have been driven here involuntarily, 
but is quite as likely to be a deliberate, though an inadvertent, immi¬ 
grant. In either case it has probably come from the Andamans, whence 
also the large Corby has certainly come; the latter has probably, how¬ 
ever, not come deliberately but has been driven by stress of weather. 

The Paroquet and the Sunbird, the Koel and the Bulbul are pro¬ 
bably all involuntary immigrants, the two former under the influence 
of the south-west, the two latter under the influence of either monsoon. 

The most interesting bird of the list is the Karcondam Hornbill, 
not merely because it is endemic in that island,—pointing to its arrival 
there being an event of very considerable antiquity since it has had time 
to develope peculiarities that appear to entitle it to speciflc rank, and 
indicating moreover that the event is one which has recurred very in¬ 
frequently, if at all—but because, there being no Hornbills in the 
Andaman group proper, whence birds driven by the south-west mon¬ 
soon must have been derived, we are led to conclude that it owes its 
presence in the island to the influence of the usually weaker north-east 
monsoon. 

The probabilities of the case are more compactly indicated in the 
subjoined table. 


246 


12 1 


Derivation of the Avifauna <?/Narcondam and Barren Island. 


Species introduced 

Possibly 

Certainly 

Probably 

Volunt. 

In- 

volunt. 

Volunt. 

In- 

volunt. 

Volunt. 

In- 

volunt. 

From India or Indo-China 

7 


4 


5 


,, Andamans or Malaya 

9 


5 

. 

7 


By N.-E. Monsoon 


4 


I 


2 

,, S.-W. Monsoon 


7 


2 


4 

Total ... 





12 

6 


The butterflies must all of necessity be examples of involuntary 
immigration, and though not of necessity all immigrants under the in¬ 
fluence of winds, have probably in most cases been driven thither by 
one or other of the monsoons. 

Leaving out of account those of Barren Island, two of which have not 
been specifically identified while a third has not had the particular local 
race determined, and considering only those of Narcondam, we see that 
one —Leptosia xiphia —has of necessity come from the north-east, and one 
Ixias andama?ia —has of necessity come from the south-west; all the 
others may have arrived under the influence of either monsoon. 

Meagre as our knowledge of the Fauna of these islands is, we 
seem justified in concluding that the predominance of an Andamans 
element in it is altogether due to the fact that they are nearer the 
Andaman Group, from the direction of which a strong monsoon blows 
for the greater part of each year. At the same time it is clear that 
the opposite monsoon, though blowing with less force and over a 
wider sea, is not altogether inactive, but on the contrary must be held 
accountable for the introduction of certain species which, though they 
have reached these islands from Indo-China, have not yet succeeded in 
passing beyond them to the Andaman Group proper. The precise ex¬ 
tent of either influence it would however be premature, in the present 
state of our knowledge, to attempt to assess. 

From the Annals of Botany, vol VI, No. 22, July 1892. 

214 

On the Synonymy of Anthocoma flavescens Zoll.—By D. Train. 

A Labiate genus, Anthocoma, was proposed by Zollinger in 


247 































2IS 

1846 to accommodate a plant collected by him in Java. This plant 
{Anihocoma flavescens Zoll.) was redescribed in the following year by 
Hasskail who, however, at the same time suggested that it might be 
the same as Zollinger’s own Goniphostemma dichotomum; this sugges¬ 
tion was adopted, without seeing a specimen, by A. de Candolle in 
1848 . Miquel in 1856 , though pointing out that the accounts given 
by Zollinger and Hasskarl are opposed to this specific identification, 
nevertheless, and again without seeing specimens, has treated the plant 
as a Gomphostemma. On the other hand Bentham, who also has had 
to work without a specimen, has never admitted this reduction and, as 
recently as 1876 , has suggested that, from the descriptions, the plant 
might perhaps be a Fhlomis. The writer has had occasion to point 
out in another place* that Anthocoma flavescens, as described by 
Hasskarl, could not be a Fhlomis, but owing to the absence of 
specimens and from the inadequacy of the published descriptions, was 
then compelled to leave its true position an open question. 

Since writing the note referred to the writer has been enabled to 
examine specimens of this obscure plant kindly sent by Dr. Treub 
from the Buitenzorg Herbarium to that of Calcutta. These prove that 
Anthocoma is not entitled to generic rank, but at the same time show 
that it is neither a Gomphostemma nor a Fhlomis. 

The plant is in fact Miquel’s own Cymaria mollis ; as however this 
Java plant is conspecific with Cymaria acuminata from Timor, the 
species to which the name Anthocoma flavenscens Zoll. must hence¬ 
forth be definitely referred as a synonym is Cymaria acuminata 
Decaisne. 

The full synonymy of this species is subjoined and is followed by a 
few critical remarks supporting the formal reductions. In presenting 
it the writer wishes to express his own gratitude to Dr. Treub for 
having afforded an opportunity of finally disposing of a synonym that 
has, for the past forty-five years, been a puzzle to students of 
Labiatae. 

Cymaria acuminata Decaisne in Herb. Timor. Descript. 71 
( 183 s) ; De Dessert, leones Selectae, iii. 51 , t. 86 ( 1837 ); 
Benth. in DC. Prodr. xii. 602 ( 1848 ); Miq., Flor. Ind. Bat. 
ii. 992 ( 1856 ). 

Cymaria mollis Miq., Flor. Ind. Bat. ii. 992 ( 1856 ). 

* Ann. Roy. Bot. Garden, Calcutta, iii. 231 ( 1891 ', footnote. 


248 



2i6 


Ailihocoma flavescens Zoll. in Nat, en Geneesk. Arch. ii. 569 
( 1846 ) ; Hasskarl, Flora, xxx, 596 ( 1847 ). 

Comphostetnma dichoto mum ZoW. et Mor. ? Ha skarl, Flora, xxx. 
596 ( 1847 ). 

Gomphostemma dichotomiim A. DC. in Prodr. xii. 552 {ad calc.) et 
xii. 700 ( 184 S), nec Zoll. et Mor., Syst. Verzeichn. ; nec Walp., 
Rep. vi. ; nec Benlh. in Prodr. xii. 

Gomphostemma flavescens Miq., Flor. Ind. Bat. ii. 987 ( 1856 ). 

Phlomis ? sp., Benth. m Gen. PI. ii. 1216 ( 1876 ). 

The description by Decaisne and the figure in De Dessert, which 
Decaisne drew, indicate a plant with glabrous leaves, whereas the Java 
plant has leaves hirsute above and below. But the 

description by De Dessert, which he states is based on fuller material, 
points out that even the Timor plant may have leaves puberulous on 
both surfaces. In Java too the character is variable, the examples of 
Anthocoma flavescens being more hirsute than some of those on which 
Miquel founded his Cymaria mollis. The character, which is the only 
tangible one in Miquel’s diagnosis of the two plants, is at best a trivial 
one ; the flowers and fruits of the Timor and the Java plants so 

precisely agree that it is impossible to doubt that they are conspecific. 

In the leones Selectae the nutlet figured is glabrous ; Decaisne’s 

own description, however, as well as those of De Dessert and of 

Hasskarl, indicate correctly that the nutlets are hirsute at the 

apex. 

In Decaisne’s original description, and also in the figure in De 
Dessert, the true condition of the anthers is expressed ; these are not 
merely (as stated in Gen. PI. ii^ 1222 ) two-celled with cells becoming 
divaricate, but become ultimately by confluence one-celled. The 
condition of the anthers in Cymaria elongata is precisely the same* ; 
probably therefore the character should be added to the generic 
description. 

Hasskarl has described the corolla-tube of Atithocoma flavescens as 
hirsute within; the corolla-tube is however quite devoid of any annulus 
or hirsute patch within ; the filaments are hirsute at the base in this 
species, as they also are in Cymaria elongata., and this condition may 
have led to statement which, though inexact, has not produced any 
serious consequences. The anther-cells, probably from only those of 

* Unfortunately the solitary specimen of Cymaria dichotoma at Calcutta is in 
fruit only, so that no opinion regarding its anthers can be expressed. 


249 



217 


flowers that were too young having been examined, have been un¬ 
fortunately described by Hasskarl as two-celled with parallel cells ; it 
is doubtless this unhappy misapprehension that has led both De 
Candolle and Miquel to look upon Anthocoma as a Gomphostemma, 
and that has obscured so completely and so long the true affinities of 
Zollinger’s plant. 

From the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol.LXIl, Part II, No. i, 1893 . 
7 

Two species of VQ 6 .\cn\ 2 iX\s.—By D. Prain. 

(With Plates I and II.) 

[ Received March 9th—Read April 5th. ] 

In 1889 (Journ. As. Soe. Beng. Iviii, pt. 2 , p. 255 ) the writer had the 
honour to communicate to the Society descriptions of a number of new 
Indian species of this genus. Since then a considerable number of new 
species have been reported from China and Tibet and have been described 
in various periodicals by Messrs Maxiraowicz, Hemsley and Franchet, and 
by the writer. Now, another new Indian species has been reported; of 
this a description is given below and the present opportunity is taken 
of describing an allied new. species froiii Szechuen. 

I. Pedicularis diffusa Prain, sp. nov. (Pl. I.) 

Elata simplex vel e collo diffuse ramosa, radice debili ramosa collo 
esquamato, caulibus gracilibus simplicibus, foliis radicalibus longe petio- 
latis mox evanescentibus caulinis 4 -natim verticillatis laminis gla- 
brescentibus ovato-oblongis pinnatisectis, segmentis 5 - 8 -jugis ob- 
longis obtusis inciso-serratis ; floribus verticillatis verticillis numerosis 
inter se remotis, bracteis foliaceis oblongo-ovatis petiolatis pinnati- 
fidis et inciso-serratis ; calycis breve pedicellati campanulati mem- 
branacei inflati totius reticulati antice vix fissi dentibus majusculis 
inaequilatis anticis et lateralibus ovatis inciso-serratis illis duplo his 
4 -plo summo deltoideo integro latioribus j corollae roseae tubo sursum 
ampliato calyce duplo longiore basi infracto, labio 3 -lobo lobis oblongo- 
ovatis margine sinuatis lateralibus medio dimidio majoribus, galea 
leviter arcuata tubo subcontinua apice subincurva erostri; staminibus 
ex adverse summi ovarii insertis filamentis anticis superne hirsutis ; 
ovario ovoideo stigmate parum exserto, capsula anguste lanceolata apice 
acuta calyce duplo longiore, seminibus ovoideis testa nigrescente minute 
reticulatis. 


2^0 


8 

In Himalaya orientali ; Sikkim, Mt. Tankra, 11,500 p. s. ra.; G.A. 
Ganunie ! 

Caulibus 40-60 cm, longis, foliis caulinis 2-2-5 cm. longis his 
0-75-1 cm. latis, segmentis 5 mm. longis 3 mm latis, petiolis 0-5-1 cm. 
longis ; calyce 6 mm. longo hoc 3-5 mm. lato; corollae tubo 10 mm, longo 
apice 4 mm. lato, galea 5 mm. longa, labio 8 mm. lato; capsula 12 ram. 
longa 5 mm. lata. 

This species is most nearly related to P. verticillata Linn, and P. 
refiacta Maxim, but besides differing greatly in habit and foliage from 
both it differs from P. verticillata in having a calyx with large teeth 
and with a tube reticulated throughout while it differs from P. refracta 
in having the anterior and lateral calyx teeth serrate and not entire ; 
from both it differs in having acute, not muticous, anther-cells. 

Of Indian species, it in habit much resembles P. fiexuosa Hook, f., 
though it is glabrescent while that species is hirsute, but the plan4^ that 
it imitates most closely is P. gracilis Wall. var. viacrocarpa Prain, the 
likeness being so great that though in flower they differ so widely, it is 
not easy to distinguish fruiting specimens of the two. 

2. Pedicularis flaccida Prain, sp. nov. (PI. IL). 

Ascendens glabra caulibus gracilibus corymbosim ramosis, foliis 
ramisque 3-4-natim verticillatis radicalibus mox evanescentibus cau¬ 
linis breve petiolatis ovatis pinnatifidis segmentis 5-6-jugis obtusis 
inciso-serratis ; floribus in verticillis 4-floris paucis remotisque dispositis, 
bracteis foliaceis calycem excedentibus; calycis glaberrimi parvuli 
campanulati antice parum fissi 5-dentati segmentis omnibus oblongis 
integris tubo costato nec reticulato; corollae tubo sursum ampliato 
calycem 3-plo excedente basi infracto, labio 3-lobo lobis lateralibus 
ovatis medio orbiculato basi constricto 3-plo majoribus, galea leviter 
arcuata tubo subcontinua apice subincurva erostri, staminibus ex ad- 
verso medii ovarii insertis omnibus glabris, antheris contiguis muticis ; 
ovario ovoideo stigmate exserto. 

In China occidentali ; Szechuen Occident, prope lachienlu, Pratt n. 

471 ! , . • . • 

Caulibus 20-25 cm. longis foliis caulinis i cm. longis his 0-7 cm. 

latis segmentis 2 mm. longis i mm. latis, petiolis 0-5 cm. longis; calyce 
2-5 mm. longo hoc 2 mm. lato; corollae tubo 8 mm. longo apice 4‘5 mm. 
lato, galea 4 mm. longa, labio 7 mm. lato. 

Like the preceding species this is also closely related to P. verti¬ 
cillata Linn, but differs considerably in habit, and though it has the 
calyx tube ribbed and not reticulated, just as P. verticillata has, it differs 
in having the calyx distinctly toothed and extremely small. The stamens 
also differ in being all glabrous whereas in P. verticillata the anterior 

251 


9 


pair are hirsute; the anthers though muticous as in P. verticillata are 
contiguous and not discrete. The fruit is unknown. 

As both these species belong to one natural group it may be useful 
to provide a key, modified, so as to admit of their reception, froih the 
key already published by the writer (Ann. Roy. Bot Garden., Calcutta, 
94)j in which the relative position of these and of the previously- 
known species is shown. 

Verticillatae. 

Galea less than half the length of the lip :— 

Bracts flabellate, spike long, dense ; calyx 
small, subglobose, not cleft, teeth small, 
entire; anterior filaments hairy 
Bracts oblong or linear, spike short; calyx 
large ovate, teeth large 

Calyx not cleft, teeth crested except the 
upper ; filaments not hairy 
Calyx cleft, teeth all entire; anterior 
filaments hairy 

Galea about equal in length to the lip :— 

Calyx-tube not net-veined between the ribs :— 

Calyx cleft, hardly toothed; anthers 

discrete, anterior filaments hairy ... P. verticillata. 

Calyx not cleft, distinctly toothed ; anthers 

contiguous, filaments not hairy ... P.flaccida. 

Calyx-tube net-veined between the ribs :— 

Calyx hardly cleft, teeth crested except 

the upper; anterior filaments hairy... P. diffusa. 

Calyx distinctly cleft, teeth entire 
Margin of galea even ; anterior fila¬ 
ments hairy ... ... P. refracta. 

Margin of galea toothed ; filaments 

not hairy ... ... P. szetschuanica. 


P. spicata, 

P. lineata. 

P. likiangensis. 


Explanation of the Plates. 

Plate I. Pedicularis diffusa Prain. 

I, Flower with bract; 2 , calyx with ovary and style ; 3 , half of corolla show¬ 
ing staminal insertion ; 4 , stamens ; 5 , capsule ; 6 seed : i, 2 , 3 an^t 5 magnified y ; 
4 and 6 magnided y. 

Plate II. Pedicularis flaccida Prain. 

I, Flower with bract; 2 , calyx with ovary and style; 3 , half of corolla showing 
staminal insertion : all magnified y. 

252 



PRAIN, Jour. Asisut. Soc.Bengal, . 1893 , Vol. LXlI.Pt; II, 


D. Prain Jelt. 


PLATE I 


A. C. Mukerjei lith. 


PEDICULARIS DIFFUSA Pram, 








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PLATE II. 



A. C. Mukerj ei litL. 


A. D. Molla delt. 


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From the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal, Yol. LXII, Part 11, No. 2, 

1893. 


On the Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island.— By D. Prain. 

Plates III and lY. 

[Read May 3rd]. 

§ Introductory Sketch. 

The Indian Ocean is broken on the north by the Indian Peninsula 
into two roughly triangular seas. The eastern, rather the smaller, forms 
an area known vaguely as the Bay, Gulf, or Sea of Bengal—the first 
of these names being that most usually employed—bounded on the west 
by Ceylon and India, on the east by the Malay Isthmus (Tenasserim) 
and Indo-China, and on the north by the Gangetic Delta. The ocean- 
surface thus defined is, however, further differentiated into three distinct 
hydrographical areas. 

These areas are (a) the Bat of Bengal, a bight limited to the west 
by the Kistna Delta, to the east by Cape Negrais and situated to the 
north of an arbitrary line—the parallel of Lat. 16° —beyond which 

it passes into (b) the Sea op Bengal, stretching from Coromandel 
and Ceylon, on the west, to the Andamans and Nicobars on the east. 
The Sea of Bengal opens southwards into the Indian Ocean proper, from 
which it is hydrqgraphically rather definitely limited by the somewhat 
rapid upward shelving of its floor from the bottom of that ocean to a 
uniform depth of 2200 fathoms along a line roughly coincident with 
the parallel of Lat. 6° N. Thereafter its floor is a plain and practically 

253 


40 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

a level one, for if slopes so gradually northwards that, as it passes into 
the Bay proper, its depth is still 1400 fathoms. No such clear delimita¬ 
tion exists between Sea and Bay ; the plain that forms their common 
floor still slopes gradually upwards towards the north till, in the neigh¬ 
bourhood of Lat. 20° N., the edge of the shelf of the Gangetic Delta is 
reached. 

The southern edge of the floor of the Sea of Bengal may, in spite 
of its depth of over 2000 fathoms, be taken as, in a sense, the margin 
also of the continent of Asia, for there is more than the rapid increase 
of slope towards the bottom of the Indian Ocean to characterise it. To 
the west it coincides with that remarkably abrupt terrestrial elevation 
which results in the island of Ceylon, off the south-west coast of which 
island, less than 40 miles from the Basses, the ocean depth of 2300 
fathoms is reached. To the east a precisely similar terrestrial eleva¬ 
tion, though of smaller size and much less height, is met with. Just as 
Ceylon lies, a pear-shaped eminence, to the east of Lon. 80° E., so to tho 
east of Lon. 90° E. lies the pear-shaped eminence known as Carpenter’s 
Ridge,* a terrestrial mass that rises from a depth of 2300 fathoms in 
Lat. 5° N., till in Lat. 6° N. and Lon. 90° 30’ E., it reaches a point 
which carries only 1380 fathoms. The ‘ thick end ’ of the pear in both 
cases faces the south, and just as the ‘ stalk,’ in the case of Ceylon, tails 
north-westward into the Indian Peninsula, the ‘ stalk,’ in the case of 
Carpenter’s Ridge, tails north-eastward into Middle Andaman. There 
are these differences between the two; the connecting ridge between 
Ceylon and India carries nowhere more than 8 fathoms, that between 
Carpenter’s Ridge and the Andamans carries 1600 fathoms, while the 
highest point of Carpenter’s Ridge is as much beneath as the highest 
point in Ceylon is above sea-level. 

The third area (c) is the land-locked seaf, bounded on the west by 
the Andamans and Nicobars, on the north by the Irrawady Delta, on 
the east by Tenasserim and Kedah, and prolonged south-eastward into 
the Straits of Malacca, between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsnla. 
This sea is not, as a rule, distinguished by any general name, though 


* Alcock: Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser, vi., iv., 377. 
t Carpenter: Kecords of the Geological Survey of India, xx, 48, had proved, as 
conclusively as it is possible in the absence of actual soundings to prove, that this 
body of water must be separated from the Sea of Bengal by a ridge nowhere 
deeper than 760 fathoms, the shallowest sounding known between Acheen and the 
Nicobars, since the temperature at 1200 fathoms east of the ridge is that appropriate 
to 740 fathoms to the west of it. Since then the indication of 736 fathoms as the 
depth on the line from the Nicobars to the Andamans is a striking confirmation of 
the justice of Carpenter’s reasoning. 

254 


41 


Flora 0 /Naroondam and Barren Island. 

that portion of it close to the Irrawaday Delta is spoken of as the Gulf 
dr Bay of Martaban; it has, however, sometimes been spoken of as the 
Gulf of Pegu, and more recently has received the much more appropriate 
name of the Andaman Sea.* 

* Alcock: Annala and Magazine of Natnral History, ser. vi., iv., 3^8. The 
degree of confusion in nomenclature that prevails is sufficiently exemplified in the 
various Atlases of recent date. Keith-Johnstone’s “ Eoyal Atlas —an excellent 
example of an English Atlas—shows, on the Same sheet (India, soilthern sheet) 
In the general map, the Bay of Bengal and the Sea of Bengal limited as they are in 
the text, though the Bay is called the “ Gulf ” of Bengal i in the small map of the 
South-Eastern provinces placed on the same sheet this “ Gulf ” is called, as is more 
usual, the Bay. No name is given to the Andaman Sea, though the Gulf of 
Martaban is distinguished. In Stieler’s Hand-Atlas—an excellent example of a 
German Atlas—we find (Sheet 67, by Berghaus) the phrase “ MeerbUsen von Pegu 
used as the precise equivalent of Alcock’s later-published but perferable name of 
“ Andaman Seathe Gulf of Martaban of the English maps is designated, much 
more correctly than in English maps, “ Bai von Martaban.” So much confusion 
of names and their incidence, renders it necessary to insist on some definite system 
of nomenclature, with a rigid definition of the areas to which the names apply. 

It would seem therefore that German geographers are prepared to admit the 
distinctness of the Andaman Sea as a geographical area, while to modern English 
geographers the necessity for considering the question has apparently not occurred. 
If, however, at present they refuse to recognise this as a truly land-locked area 
deserving of a specific designation, the following passage from a letter dated 
Calcutta, the 4th March 1795, from Major A. Kyd to Sir John Shore, then Governor- 
General, will show that even a hundred years ago those who knew the area best 
realised its true nature. Eyd says :—The Andaman Islands, “ comprehending what 
“ are called the Great and Little Andamans, extending from N. Lat. 18°31' 
“ southward, and lying nearly in a N, and S. direction between 92° and 93° E. of 
“ Greenwich, are part of a continued range of islands extending from Cape Negraia 
“ to Acheen Head, including the Preparis, Cocos, Car Nicobar, and the Great and 
“ Little Nicobars, the whole being a chain of islands between which there is reason 
“ to believe that there is a continuation of soundings, entirely dividing the eastern 
“ part of the Bay of Bengal.’^ Kyd was Superintendent of the second, or Port 
Cornwallis settlement in the Andamans, instituted in 1792, when the settlement, 
under Blair at Old Harbour, now Port Blair, begun in 1789, was abandoned. 

As an example of the usage which terms the whole sea-area between India 
and Indo-China the “ Bay of Bengal,” may be mentioned a paper by Hume (Stray 
Feathers, vol. ii.) wherein these two islands, along with Preparis, the Cocos, and 
of course the Andamans and the Nicobars, are termed the Islands in the Bay of 
Bengal, as opposed to Ceylon, on the one hand, and the Mergui Archipelago, on the 
other. This is also the usage of the Admiralty Maps of the region, and though 
it is certainly indefensible on hydrographical grounds, since the area to the east of 
the Andaman-Nicobar chain fulfils in every particular far more so than the Sea of 
Bengal itself—the conditions laid down in the definition of a “ Sea,” it is prefer¬ 
able to the slip-shod system that distinguishes the Bay of Bengal from the Sea of 
Bengal, without distinguishing between the Sea of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, 

255 


42 


Flora o/Narcondam and Barren Island, 

It is in tliis last-named area that the islands of Narcondam and 
Barren Island, which form the subject of the present paper, are situated. 
These islands the writer was, through the kindness of Col. Cadell, v. C., 
late Chief Commissioner of the Andamans, enabled to visit in March 
and April 1891, in order to investigate their Flora, hlarcondam was 
examined for ten days in the end of March ; after an interval occupied 
in visiting Little Andaman and the Nicobars,* Barren Island was ex¬ 
amined from April 5th to April 8th. 

The volcanic island of Narcondam is situated in the Andaman Sea 
inLat. 13°26'N. and Lon. 95° 15' E., 80 miles to the east of Port Corn¬ 
wallis in North Andaman, 74 miles north-north-east of Barren Island, 
150 miles to the south of the nearest point on the coast of Pegu, and 250 
miles due west of Mergui. The island rises abruptly out of deep water, 
more especially on its eastern, western and southern sides, to a height 
of 2330 feet above sea level, and of 8000 feet from the floor of the 
Andaman sea between it and North Andaman to the west, and between 
it and Tavoy on the east.f 

The soundings on which the conclusion is based are given in the 
following table:— 


Table I .{—Soundings in the vicinity of Narcondam. 


GENERAL DIRECTION OF 

LINE OP SOUNDINGS, 

DISTANCE IN MILES FROM 

CENTRAL PEAK. 

DEPTH OF SOUNDINGS IN 
FATHOMS. 

E. S. E. 

H 

90 

E. S. E, 

2 

75 

E. 6 . E. 


138 

E. S. E. 

3i 

284 

E. S. E. 

3| 

333 

E. S. B. 

4f 

486 

E. S. E. 

IQO 

1050 

S. S. E. 

li 

242 

s. s. w. 

If 

182 

s. s. w. 

2f 

465 

s. s. w. 

3a 

652 

s. s, w. 

24J 

1010 


* Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1891 (December), p. 156. 
t Stieler: Hand Atlas, sheet 67 shows depths, which are quite wrong, of 2097 
and 2200 fathoms to the E. and S. E. of Narcondam; how these errors have arisen 
the writer cannot trace. Sheet 58 of the same Atlas gives the true depth. 

t This Table, with the corresponding one for Barren Island, is mainly derived 
from Mallet and Carpenter, Eecords of the Geological Survey of India, xx, 46, et 
seq., with additional soundings from a copy of the Sounding-Book of H, M. I.*M. 
Survey Steamer “ Investigator" kindly lent by Dr. Alcock 
256 












Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 43 


Table I .—Soundings in the vicinity of N’arcondam.— {Continued.) 


GENERAL DIRECTION OF 
LINE OF SOUNDINGS. 

DISTANCE IN MILES FROM 
CENTRAL PEAK. 

DEPTH OP SOUNDINGS IN 

FATHOMS. 




S. W. 

60 

1140 

W. N. W. 

H 

162 

W. N. W. 


407 

W. N. W. 

3 

509 

W. N. W. 

3^ 

685 

w. by 8. 

40 

922 

N. N. E. 

2 

74 

N. N. E. 


104 

N. N. B. 

3i 

150 

N. N. E. 


411 

N. N. E. 

9i 

362 

N. N. E. 

16 

290 

N. N. E. 

62 

70 

N. N. E. 

70 

50 


The island is a fairly-regnlar oval with the longer diameter in a 
line running north-north-east to sonth-sonth-west; this diameter is 
two and a half miles long, the other one and a half. The regularity 
of outline is somewhat broken at the north-east corner by an oblong 
peninsula about three furlongs long and half a mile across ; this spit, 
which is occupied by a steep-sided twin-peaked hill, quite dwarfed 
by the central mass, is in no sense detached from the rest of the island 
but passes through two or three intervening heights into the main 
peak. This peak, situated slightly to the south and west of the centre 
of the island, is crowned by three small points of which the most 
northern is the highest. The two others, situated a quarter of a mile 
to the south and to the south-east, respectively, are at the seaward 
ends of two ridges that diverge from , the highest peak, and are 
separated by the beginning of a deep gorge. The northern point, as 
already mentioned, reaches 2330 feet ; the point to the south is 2150 ft., 
that to the south-east 2200 feet high. The gorge that separates the 
two latter, after passing southward between them for about a quarter 
of a mile, turns south-west round the shoulder of the lower one, and 
thus partially separates the south end of the island, as a narrow ridge 
1200 to 1500 feet high, from the rest of the hill. It is, however, only 
the western end of this ridge that is free, the eastern end is connected, 
by means of a narrow but lofty ridge, with the south-eastern part of 
the central peak. Numerous other gorges, none of them however so 
striking as that just described, furrow the hill on every side. 


257 


















44 


Flora of Xarcondam and Barren Island. 


The chief interest of this configuration resides in the misappre’hen- 
sions as to the structure of the island to which it has given rise. 
McCelland mistook either the ravines or the ridges between them for 
streams of lava* * * § ; Kurz has described and figured the island as a central 
volcanic cone, surrounded by an outer ring, not much over half the ele¬ 
vation of the central mass, and very largely broken down.f Seen from 
Kurz’s point of view (N. W., f IST., at a distance of 20 miles) an oblique 
view of the mouth of the yawning south-western gorge is obtained, while 
the main mass hides the connection of its southern wall with the cen¬ 
tral peak. At the same time the peaks already mentioned as connect¬ 
ing the main hill with the somewhat outlying north-eastern spit, serve 
to conceal their own connections and complete the illusion. At this 
distance too the three hummocks at the top of the peak look very much 
like as many points on the edge of a crater. In a nearer view from 
the same direction the appearance of a central cone is still well- 
preserved, though the regularity of what seems at a distance the 
remains of an outer ring quite disappears.J Even close in-shore it 
is impossible to say whether the three points on the peak are, or are 
not, indicative of the remains of a crater, the forest that clothes them 
disguising their true relationship. The appearance from another 
point of view (W. \ S., at a distance of 40 miles) agrees well with 
the description by Horsburgh of “a cone or pyramid with its sum¬ 
mit broken ofE.”§ 

* McClelland : Jour. As. Soc., Beng., vii, 77. It would depend a good deal on ths 
distance from which the island was seen, whether the ravines or the ridges between 
them be what were taken for ‘ lava-currents.’ Seen from a distance of 6 miles or 
more, through a glass, the darker shadows caused by the gorges might well enough, 
as Ball (Eecords, Geol. Survey of India, vi, 89), and Mallet (Memoirs, Geol. Survey 
of India, xx, 281) suppose, be what led McClelland astray ; as however the drawing 
on which McClelland based his opinion was taken from about a mile and a half, or 
two miles from the eastern shore—the drawing was made by Grifidth—there ia 
no doubt that what he took for streams of lava were the ridges between tho 
ravines: on this side of the island these are, towards the top, bare and rugged, and 
are not unlike streams of lava. After all, however, McClelland had nothing to 
support his idea that the island was volcanic but its conical shape and its isolation. 

t Kurz : Report on the Vegetation of the Andaman Islands, p. 4. Kurz appears 
to have had nothing more to go upon in supposing the island to be volcanic than 
had McClelland; the accident of configuration led him to go further than McCelland 
and assume, not only that the island is volcanic, but that it is an island of the same 
type as Barren Island, in which there is an inner and an outer cone. And with the 

accounts and the appearance of Barren Island in his recollection_Kurz disposes 

cursorily of Barren Island in the sentence immediately preceding the one referred to 
—the idea is by no means unnatural. 

t Ball: Records of the Geol. Survey of India, vi, 89. 

§ Horsburgh : Indian Directory (ed. v), ii, 56, 

258 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 45 

Throughout the southern half of the island the coast line has been 
eaten by the sea into bare cliffs that vary in height from 50 to 800 
feet. From the appearance these present to any one circumnavigating 
the island it would seem that these, even at the mouths of the gorges, 
and even if landing in spite of the heavy swell that usually surges 
round the island were feasible, must be altogether inaccessible. Much 
of the northern half of the island is similarly sea-worn, but the nor¬ 
thern cliffs are not in many cases very high. The north-west corner of 
the island is a sharply triangular ness, with a high cliff for its nor¬ 
thern, and a sloping hill-side, ending in lower cliffs, for its western 
seaface. This western slope overlooks a bight half a mile wide, but of 
only a furlong’s recession. This bight, open to the north-west, is divided 
into two almost equal bays by a small detached islet, between which and 
the main island stretches a rocky reef. To the south of this islet and 
reef is a somewhat indifferent anchorage, and landing from a boat is 
possible on its small shingle beach, behind which a few coco-nut trees 
grow. This beach is close to the reef and at the mouth of a rather 
narrow gorge which leads fairly directly to the main peak. 

The cliffs that form the east side of this ness overlook a much finer 
bight bounded on the east by the oblong spit already described, more 
than half a mile across, and with a recession almost equalling its width. 
The head of this bight further recedes into a small inviting-looking 
bay which, however, begins to shoal* about a hundred yards from the 
shore, and the strong swell that surges round either cape is broken as it 
crosses the bay into a heavy surf which renders landing neither pleasant 
nor safe.f This bay, which may be termed Coco Bay, is bounded by a 
level stretch of turtle-frequented sand, behind which is the only good 
example of Pandanus sea-fence on the island; behind the sea-fence is 
a fringe of coco-nut trees ; beyond the coco-nut zone, and at the mouth 
of one of the largest gorges in the island, is a small stretch of level 
land, due, no doubt, like the shallowness of the bay, to the deposition of 
detritus from the main hill. In this fiat patch, immediately behind the 
coco-nuts and to the west side of the stream-bed, is a grove of plantains. 

* Ball: Eecords of tke Geol. Survey of India, vi, 89. 

t Hume : Stray Feathers, ii, 109. The landing mentioned by Ball and described 
by Hume is the only one on record at this bay. Probably, however, it is not the only 
one that has been effected. Though the Coco-nuts that line its margin may have been 
introduced by the sea, this cannot be said of a grove of Plantains that occurs. 
Landing did not seem possible at the time of the writer’s visit, nor was it neces¬ 
sary ; the bay, which was visited several times, was reached by cutting a path 
through the jungle from Anchorage Bay. It is of course possible, though hardly 
likely, that the individuals who introduced the Plantains also cut such a path. 

259 


46 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

To the south-east of the ohlong spit, and therefore on the east side 
of the island, is a third, much wider bight, three-quarters of a mile 
from cape to cape, but only receding a furlong and a half. The northern 
half of this bay, bounded by the hilly spit, is overlooked by steep hill- 
- sides ending in cliffs that, though not lofty, are particularly abrupt. The 
southern half, limited by the main island-mass, has a beach of rounded 
boulders; behind this is a straggling sea-fence in which stands a solitary 
coco-nut tree; a narrow belt of true beach-forest lies beyond. It was 
with little expectation of being able to land that we put into this bay; we 
were therefore agreeably surprised to find that—at least at the time of 
our visit, the end of March—not only could a landing be made without 
difficulty, but that the bay afforded a more comfortable anchorage than 
Anchorage Bay itself. The boulder beach slopes rather gradually out¬ 
wards, and is of a considerable width; probably therefore the surf here 
is very strong during the north-east monsoon. That the sea-fence is 
here irregular and thin is no doubt due partly to the surf, and partly to 
the fact that it has an insecure root-hold among the rounded stones 
that are piled behind the beach into an embankment which protects 
the forest beyond. This beach-forest occupies a strip of level land that 
stretches backwards from 50 to 100 yards to the base of the main hill. 
Three gorges debouch on this level area and have filled up the interstices 
of the old beach with the soil on which the trees grow. At the mouth 
of one of these ravines there is a gap in the beach-forest occupied by a 
small depression that in March is covered with only a coating of fine 
sun-cracked mud, but in the rains evidently forms a small lagoon; 
this appears to be the only spot in the island where water ever lodges. 

Though entirely volcanic in structure there is no indication at the 
summit or elsewhere that the island has recently been active. There is 
no crater at the top*, and his examination led the writer to think, not 
that all traces of craterine shape have been obliterated by long erosion, 
but that there never has been any crater on the peak. The local features, 
coupled with the nature of the rocks that constitute the island,f 

* Mallet: Memoirs of the G-eol. Survey of India, xxi, 281. 

t Ball: Records of the Geol. Survey of India, vi, 90, only mentions a bed of 
volcanic agglomerate, (of which several crop out round the coast), at Coco Bay, where¬ 
in are embedded trachytio boulders. Mallet—Memoirs of the Geol. Survey of India 
xxi 281-283—describes the Narcondam lavas as “ compact, or very slightly vesicular 
“ lavas in which crystals of white translucent felspar, and black or dark-brown 
“ hornblende, are disseminated through a ground-mass which is (generally light) 
“ grey in unaltered specimens, but pale red in those that have undergone weathering 
» and in which the iron has been peroxidised.” Farther on. Mallet remarks “ The 
“ lavas of Narcondam are essentially hornblende andesites, and are of a decidedly 
» more acid character than those of Barren Island.” This character of acidity 
260 


47 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

appear to indicate that originally Harcoudam may have been a volcano, 
produced, like the volcano that appeared on the Island of Camiguin 
in July 1871,* by the extrusion of viscid lava without the accompani¬ 
ment of crater-forming materials. In any case, the depth of the ravines 
that plough the flanks of the hill on every side indicates very clearly 
how remote has been the period of the island’s activity.f 

The top of the island is frequently bathed in cloud ;X during the 
ten days spent in the island in 1891, this cloud-cap seemed to envelope, 
for the greater part of the day, the last 400 feet of the peak. The appear¬ 
ance, however, was slightly deceptive; for it was noticed that the cloud 
was only condensed on the western aspect of the hill, and that towards 
evening the peak always became clear. The nature of the vegetation 
on the peak,—the trees bearded with moss, and their bark covered with 
Trichomanes —indicates clearly that this is a usual state of affairs. 

Save on the sea-cliffs, which are bare, and on the eastern side of 
the peak near the top, where the jungle is thin and scrubby, the whole 
island is clothed with dense forest: this consists mainly of lofty trees, 
with but few climbers, in the beds of the various watercourses. On the 
intervening ridges the vegetation consists of a tangled mass of slrrubby 
growth overloaded with creepers. Landing at Anchorage Bay one finds 
on the shingle some plants of Ipomosa hiloba; immediately behind the 
shingle, and under the shade of about a dozen coco-nut trees, is an at¬ 
tempt at a sea-fence, composed of Sccevola Koenigii, Hibiscus tiliaceus, 
Mormda bracteata, Guettarda speciosa, Pandanus odoratissiimis; some 
Ipomcea grandiflora, Convolvulus parviflorus, and Wedelia scandens climb 
over these. Behind these bushes some trees of Barringtonia speciosa, Termi- 
nalia Gatappa, Erythrina indica, Sterculia rubiginosa, Thespesia popidnea, 
Eracoena angustifolia, Ardisia humilis, and Ixora brunnescens represent the 
beach-forest. There is, however, but scanty room for species of either 
class, and a few plants of ErantJiemum succifolium underneath the trees 
complete the representation of this sort of vegetation in this situation. 
To the south of this point are some low cliffs, covered at the top with a 
tangled mass of Hoy a orbiculata, while at their base plants of Pluchea 
indica, Blumea glomerata, Vernonia diver gens, Desmodium polycarpon, 
Gyperus pennatus, and Thysanolcena acarifera occur ; the last-named,—it 
is, by the way, the only grass that is found on the island—is the most 
plentiful and seems to be, besides Fimbristylis ferruginea and Boerhaavia 

strongly supports the conclusion (to which Mallet also inclines) that there never 
was a crater in Narcondam, and that the island is of the endogenous volcanic type. 

* Moseley : “ Notes by a Naturalist on the ‘ Challenger,’” p. 409. 

t Mallet: Memoirs of the Geol. Survey of India, xxi, 281. 

J Ball ; Records of the Geol. Survey of India, vi 89. 


261 


48 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

repens, about the only species that occurs on the rocky sea-cliHs. On 
the small islet in Anchorage Bay and on the rocks to the north of the 
reef that connects it with the main island, is a scrubby jungle of Hibis¬ 
cus tiliaceus, Acacia concinna, JDalbergia monosperma, Premna integrifolia, 
Glocliidion calocarpum, Breynia rhamnoides, Blachia andamanica, and 
Gelonium bifarium, —the last-named especially plentiful. 

In the denser interior jungle on the hill between Anchorage Bay 
and the gorge that debouches at Coco Bay, one is struck by the familiar 
Andaman feature of groves of gregarious Euphorbiaceous treelets form¬ 
ing an under-growth in a forest of lofty trees. Of this forest. Ficus 
nitida and Ficus Bumphii are perhaps the chief constituents; the two 
commonest gregarious species are Actephila excelsa —undoubtedly the 
species on the island represented by the greatest number of individuals, 
and Mallotus andamanicus —also, in many places, very plentiful. The 
herbaceous species found underneath these treelets are mainly two 
ferns: Acrostichum appendicidatum, which is not very plentiful, and 
Asplenium urophyllum, which is. Among other species, found chiefly 
on a comparatively level tract on the top of the ridge, where the 
gregarious feature noted during the ascent from the east coast gives place 
to a mixed forest, the undergrowth includes Alsodeia bengalensis, Cans- 
jera Bheedei, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Capparis sepiaria, Pisonia acul- 
leata, Vitis lanceolaria, Leea sambucina, Memecylon edule, Abrus preca- 
torius, Mucuna gigantea, Bridelia tomentosa, Ficus hispida ; Acrostichum 
appendiculatum is here common, while Asplenium urophyllum is rare. 
The trees are also more mixed, and include, besides the two species of Ficus 
already mentioned, a Bombax, Frioglossum edule, Biospyros Kurzii, Oroxy- 
lum indicum, Artocarpus Lacoocha, Antiaris toxicaria. Ficus comosa, and 
Amoora decandra. Besides the two ferns mentioned, a not infrequent her¬ 
baceous species is a fine Amorphophallus. Along the ravine that passes 
northward to debouch at Coco Bay occur the same species ; near its 
mouth, where the ground is flat, the jungle becomes ‘ scrub ’— Morinda, 
Premna, and such like shrubs, loaded with tangled masses.of Ipomcea 
vitifolia. This type of jungle takes the place of the absent beach-forest; 
the sea-fence is however well-developed, and is of the usual Malayan 
type,— Pandanus, Guettarda, Morinda, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Ccesalpinia 
Bonducella, Coluhrina asiatica, Allophylus Gobbe, Vigna lutea, Canavalia 
turgida, and such like plants. Bound this bay the coco-nut zone is well 
developed; behind it is the plantain grove already referred to. 

East Bay, visited subsequently, may be here most conveniently 
described. On the beach occur both Ipomcea denticulata and Ipomcea 
biloba ; along with these occur Vigna lutea and Phaseolus adenanthus ; the 
sea-fence is represented by a few examples of Pandanus odoratissunus, 

262 


49 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

Tlihiscus tiliaceus, Capparis tenera, Golubrina asiatica and Clerodendron 
inerme. The true beach-forest, here well developed, contains much 
Fisonia excelsa, with a number of trees of the far less common Fisonia alba; 
the other trees of the zone are Terminalia Gatappa, Galophyllum inophyl- 
lum^ Thespesia populnea, Gyrocarpus Jacquinii, Ixora hrunnescens, Ficus 
hrevicuspis, Ficus callosa, Odina Wodier, and Garuga pinnata ; the two last- 
named, though commonest in, are not confined to tliis zone. The single 
coco-nut tree mentioned as occurring here has probably grown from a 
nut drifted round from the other bay ; at Coco Bay, however, it is more 
probable, considering their association with plantains that the trees have 
been introduced intentionally.* The edges and bed of the dry lagoon 
already described were covered with Ipomoea Turpethum. 

Along the edge of the cliff overlooking the west side of Coco Bay 
some species, not seen elsewhere, were met with : Fntada scandens, Acacia 
concinna, a Grewia (in leaf only, perhaps G Icevigata), a Tylopliora (in 
fruit only, perhaps T. globifera), Fcederia foetida, and Dioscorea saliva. 
The steep hill-side overlooking the northern part of Anchorage Bay is 
covered with a scrub-jungle of Fremna, Breynia, and such like shrubs, 
with a good deal of Gapparis sepiaria. All over this hill were seen 
withered leaves of the AmorpJiopliallus The hill-side overlooking the 
southern portion of Anchorage Bay is covered with the same dense 

* These coco-nuts are too old and too numerous to have been introduced of 
recent years; it seems strange, therefore, that they have never before been men¬ 
tioned. The recorded visits to Narcondam are :—(1). That of Messrs. Hume and 
Ball in 1873, when a landing was effected, and no more; (2). that of Messrs. Mallet 
and Hobday in 1884, when four days were spent in investigating its geology and 
topography, and an ascent, probably the first, was made of the peak; (3). the present 
visit, when the peak was again ascended. The account of their landing-place shows 
that it was at Coco Bay that Ball and Hume landed; at no other bay is there shoal 
water. Ball mentions some of the plants noticed by him at this place, but neither 
he nor Hume have recorded the existence of coco-nuts and plantains. Mallet is 
equally silent, his paper being rigidly confined to the topography and geology of the 
island. Though these are the only recorded visits, there have been others paid to 
the island. Hume {Stray Feathers ii, 110) mentions a visit by Col. Tytler. Again, 
Kurz {Report on the Vegetation of the A/ndamans, p. 13.) mentions a deputation that 
visited Barren Island in 1866, in search of pasture-grasses; from specimens in the 
Calcutta Herbarium, however, we learn that this deputation a few days later visited 
Narcondam and the Coco Group. In connection with the systematic list, occasion 
will be taken to refer to the acts of the deputation in question : it is sufficient to 
say here that to its members is probably due the merit of having introduced, at Least 
the plantains, and perhaps also the coco-nuts. This would make it certain that 
both species were present at the time of Hume’s visit. 

f Corms and seeds of this plant were brought to the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Calcutta, where it has sent up leaves and has flowered. 


263 


50 


Mora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

forest, mainly Ficus, but has for its undergrowth quantities of Garyota 
mitis, with dense patches of Pollia Aclisia underneath. 

The ridges between the gorges are tolerably uniform in the nature 
of their vegetation; Premna integrifolia extends a good way up, Morinda 
bracteata is found throughout the island and is as common at the top as 
it is on the coast; Trema amboinensis, Capparis sepiaria, and Acacia con- 
cinna, are common species ; not infreqnent is Callicarpa arhorea, though 
far less common here than on Barren Island. In the gorges patches of 
Macaranga Tanarius, Trema amboinensis, Pipturus velutinus, Boehmeria 
malabarica, as gregarious species, are common, and form, especially in 
the lower part of the hill, the prevalent undergrowth. The trees are 
those already enumerated, but as additional species, may be mentioned 
the following, all obtained in the gorge leading from Anchorage Bay to 
the summit of the peak :— Amoora Bohitulca, Apodytes andamanica. Seme- 
carpus heterophylla, Myristica glauca. Ficus glaberrima —the last mentioned 
a small tree, at about 2000 feet elevation. The climbers not previously 
noted were Anamirta Cocculus, frequent; Antitaxis calocarpa, very com¬ 
mon ; Aristolochia Tagala ; Gouania leptostachya ; Trichosanthes palmata ; 
Anodendron paniculatum; Pischidia nummularia ; Pothos scandens, and 
Strychnos acuminata, at about 1200 feet elevation. The herbaceous 
species not before observed were Blumea myriocephala, only once at about 
1600 feet elevation; Asplenium nidus, seen on trees throughout the ascent; 
Nephrodium terminans, not common below 1000 feet, very frequent above 
that height; Bavallia speluncce, here and there throughout the ascent, 
Polypodium irioides, at about 1800 feet elevation; Polypodium adnascens, 
on trees throughout the island, not common ; Bryum coronatum. 

As the summit is neared, and one passes within the area usually 
moistened by the cloud-cap, the trees are covered with moss (NecJcera 
rugulosai), and bear on their bark quantities of Trichomanes pyxidiferum. 
In other respects the jungle on the top does not differ from that lower 
down, except that, owing to the ridges being of necessity greater in pro¬ 
portion to the gorges than lower down the hill, there is relatively more 
of scrub jungle than one finds below. 

Few Fungi were obtained during the visit: doubtless the season of 
the year was unfavourable. Ho Algoe were found either on the rocks 
or washed up on the beaches. The ocean-drifts consisted almost entire¬ 
ly of fruits or seeds of species that occur on the island; the only excep¬ 
tion noted was a fruit of Heritiera littoralis found at East Bay. 

Barren Island is situated in the Andaman Sea, in Lat. 12° 16' H. 
and Lon. 93° 50' E., 60 miles to the east of Middle Andaman, 74 miles 
south-south-west of Harcondam, 80 miles north-north-east of Flat Bock 
264 


51 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

(a submarine peak that reaches the surface, but no more, in Lat. 11° 12' 
N. and Lon. 93° 36' B.), and 320 miles due west of Mergui. As shown 
in the subjoined table, the island, like Harcondam, I’ises abruptly out 
of deep water, especially on its eastern, western and northern sides, to 
a height of 8000 feet or more* above the floor of the Andaman Sea. 


Table II. — Soundings in the vicinity of Barren Island. 


General direction of 

LINE of soundings. 

Distance in miles from 

CENTRAL CONE. 

Depth of sounding in 

FATHOMS. 

E. S. E. 

li (i mile from shore). 

118 

E. S. E. 

2i 

433 

E. S. E. 

3i 

641 

E. S E. 

100 

1260 

N. N. E. 

li (i mile from shore). 

217 

N. N. E. 

2i 

545 

N. N. E. 

3f 

782 

N. 

H 

325 

N. 

25i 

1,140 

W. N. W. 

H (i mile from shore). 

180 

W. N. W. 

2i 

456 

W. N. W. 

4i 

655 

W. N.W. 

45 

1159 

W. 

If 

169 

W. 

30 

1130 

S. S. W. 

If (1 mile from shore). 

47 

S. S. W. 

3i 

238 

S. S. W. 

4i 

413 


Physiographical accounts of this island have been given by Ballf 
and Malletj; in whose papers a precis of previous information is also 
contained; a brief description is therefore all that is here necessary. 

Nearly circular in outline and about two miles in diameter, the island 
consists of a huge crater, of which the mouth is a mile wide and 
the rim is from three-quarters of a mile thick at the base—throughout 
its southern half, where it is from 920 to 1160 feet high—to barely half- 
a-mile thick—along the north where its height is from 630 to 790 
feet. The rim is further breached to below sea-level on the west side 
by a part of the original hill having been at one time blown away, the 
resulting gap being about a-quarter of a mile wide. In the middle of 

* Mallet and Carpenter : Eecords of the Geol. Survey of India, xx, 46, (foot-note). 

f Ball: Eecords of the Geol. Survey of India, vi, 81. 

J Mallet: Memoirs of the Geol. Survey of India, 251, et. seq. 


265 























52 Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

the amphitheatre that results, and therefore about a-quarter of a mile 
to the north of the centre of the island, a newer perfect volcanic cone 
rises to a height of 1015 feet. At the top there is an ovoid crater, 
somewhat straighter along its northern than its southern edge, and 
somewhat higher on these edges than at either extremity. The edges 
mentioned are nearly 80 feet above the bottom of the cup which is 
itself sub-divided into two parts. The western, somewhat irregular, is 
full of loose lava fragments, and has its floor nearly 40 feet higher than 
the other, which is an almost perfect circle, about 20 yards wide, with a 
floor of smooth soft sand. At the west end the rim of the crater is 
about 40 feet lower than along the north and south edges, and is thus 
very little above the floor of the minor western depression. In the 
middle of this dip the rim carries a huge lava block, about 20 feet long, 
10 ft. wide, and nearly 20 feet high.* This block forms a striking 
object on the cone as seen from the landing-place. At the eastern end 
of the crater the rim dips even more, and is about 60 feet below the 
level of the northern and southern edges, or just over 20 feet above 
the floor; the edge is here narrower than elsewhere. In and about the 
crater are several solfataras with crevices whence steam escapes. 

The cone itself consists of volcanic ashes, fairly firm on the south, 
east and north sides, but loose and friable on the western face. The 
slope is very uniform, being about 30° on every side. The valley be¬ 
tween the cones contains, at the base of the inner, two lava streams 
that have flowed to the sea through the breach in the outer; of these 
streams the northern overlies the southern. There has also been a 
third flow to the east, this does not, however, come in contact with either 
of the others. The sea, it may be remarked, does not enter the breach 
in the outer cone, the breach, as well as the valley between the cones, 
being filled to above sea-level by the products of the newer volcano. 

The seaward slope of the outer cone is much steeper in the northern 
than in the southern part of the island, and is furrowed by many nearly 
meridional ravines, diflB.cult of access where they enter the sea, but more 
easily traversed further up. The slope of this half of the ancient 
crater towards the newer volcano is, on the other hand, even and 
rounded, consisting for the main part of bare, loose black ash, derived from 
the inner cone. The inner slope of the southern half of the original 
volcano is, on the other hand, except at its base, steeply precipitous ; the 
seaward slope of this half, besides being much more gradual than that 

* The measurements (Mallet: Memoirs of the Geol. Survey of India, xxi, 267j 
are:—Length, 22 feet ; breadth, 11 feet, height, 13 to 19 feet. The greatest height 
is at the west end, where it is also narrowest ; its most striking aspect is to the 
spectator on the beach at the landing-place, to whom it looks like a huge tooth. 

266 


53 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

of tlie northern half, shows a second snhconcentric ridge separated from 
the true rim by a gorge that debouches on the east side of the island. 
Gorge and ridge owe their origin, however,—like the ridge and ravine of 
the same nature, but of more imposing proportions, that occur at the 
south end of Narcondam—to subaerial denudation, not to volcanic action. 

The excentric position of the newer cone, with the lesser relative 
height, and the steeper seaward slope of the northern half of the origi¬ 
nal ci’ater, seems to point to subsidence of that half. Perhaps 
the explosive eruption which elfected the breach to the west may have 
had some connection, direct or indirect, with this subsidence. The vol¬ 
cano represented by the outer cone was doubtless at one time much 
higher than it is now. 

At the landing-place in the breach there is a hot spring on the 
beach ; the temperature of this spring is steadily falling, and at the 
time of the writer’s visit was 106° ¥* The spring doubtless only 
represents percolation of rain water through the heated newer mate¬ 
rials—the inner cone and lava streams—contained within the circuit 
of the ancient crater.f 

The anchorage in the bay at the breach is of the most uncom¬ 
fortable description ; the safest anchorage is opposite a small bay with 
a sandy beach, a Fandanus sea-fence and a line of Coco-nut trees, on the 
south-west side of the island. Landing by boat is, however, usually 
quite easy on the beach at the hot spring to the north of the point where 
the lava stream falls into the sea; the surf that rolls into Anchorage 
Bay must make it impossible, as a rule, to land there. 

At Landing Bay the boulders and stones on the beach, bathed by 
the water of the hot-spring, are covered by a species of Calothrix which 
occurs in considerable quantities. Another, Alga, also a Calothrix, was 
obtained from bare rocks in one of the gorges ; no marine Algoe were seen. 
On the beach itself, behind a small bed of drift, are some examples of 
Ipomoea hiloha ; the drift contained, in addition to fruits and seeds of 
species noticed in the island, fruits of Barringtonia speciosa and of 
Heritiera littoralis.% Close to the beach and to the lava flow is an ex¬ 
ample of Pongamia glahra ; a little further inland to the north of the 
lava is a considerable grove of Flueggia microcarpa, with quantities of 
Mitreola oldenlandioides, in the sandy soil beneath. Beyond this grove is 

* Prain : Proceedings As. Soo., Bengal, 1891, p. 84. 

t Mallet : Memoirs of the G-eol. Survey of India, xxi, 274. 

$ Barringtonia s'peciosa occurs in Narcondam, and it may possibly also occur at 
some of the hays on the south-west and south of Barren Island, where the surf 
made landing impracticable. But Heritiera littoralis, the fruits of which were col¬ 
lected in Narcondam also, does not seem to occur in either island. 


267 


54 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 


a thicket of Mussuenda macrophylla —the accident of its situation has 
converted the species into a straggling shrub and imparted to it a very 
distinct facies. On the lava itself nothing grows, though further inland 
and to the south of the stream it is in several places partially covered by 
beds of Aganosma marginata, which, rooted in the adjacent soil, and 
having no trees on which to climb, prefers sprawling over the bare black 
lava to spreading along the ground among the grass. This grass, 
Ischcemum muticum, almost completely occupies the plain between the 
lava flow and the inner wall of the outer cone, which is thus a great 
meadow in which, however, there are some patches of scrub jungle, the 
chief constituents being Dodoncea viscosa, Flueggia microcarpa, Gelonium 
hifarium, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Trema amboinensis, Dalbergia tama- 
rindifoUa, and stunted examples of Gallicarpa arborea. 

The inner cone is merely a “ cinder-heap,” with hardly any vegeta¬ 
tion ; a few very stunted examples of Trema amboinensis on its southern 
face, about 650 feet up, and small shrivelled tussocks of Fimbristylis 
ferruginea scattered unevenly over all the sides except the western, being 
the only plants present. The interior of the crater has more vegeta¬ 
tion than the whole outside of the cone ; near the crevices in the inner 
wall, and especially on the south side where the soil is moistened by the 
condensation of escaping steam, occur NepJirolepis tuberosa (also obtained 
elsewhere in the island), Gheilanthes tenuifolia (very small and stunted 
specimens). Lycopodium cernuum (all over the stones in the western, 
more shallow depression of the crater), Psilotum triquetrum (also found 
in Java, on the crater of Gunong Boddas Preanger, by H. O. Forbes), 
Pholidota imbricata, Vandellia Crustacea and Oldenla7idia corymbosa ; in 
the sand at the bottom of the deeper eastern craterine depression occur 
luxuriant patches of Fimbristylis ferruginea. 

An attempt was made to land at Anchorage Bay; owing, however, 
to the heavy surf that rolls in this was found to be impossible. The 
beach in this bay is sandy ; behind it could be seen the usual sea-fence 
of Pandanus, a species seen nowhere else on the island. Just within the 
Pandanus fence rise 13 coco-nut trees tall enough to be seen and counted. 
Judging from the analagous beaches in the Coco Group and hTarcon- 
dam it may be anticipated that there are many seedlings besides. To 
verify this surmise an attempt was made later on to cross the outer cone 
from the amphitheatre and work down to this beach. The attempt did 
not succeed ; the sea was reached at a point too far to the east and the 
attempt was not considered worth repeating.* Rowing round the island 

* Those who have been engaged in similar work will understand how difficult 
it is under such circumstances to strike the jiroper ridge or ravine. The results 
of the journey, which it took a day to accomplish, were not sufficiently remunerative 

2G8 


55 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

a landing-place was looked for in bay after bay ; to no purpose, however, 
the heavy south-western swell surged on their beaches in breakers so 
huge that any attempt to land was precluded. On the east, north, and 
north-west sides however, landings were effected ; in the first case the 
crest of the outer* rim was attained at a point where further progress 
was barred by its precipitous nature. By the gorge entered from the 
north it was found impossible even to reach the crest; the north-west 
landing, after some difficult climbing, led to the edge of the outer cone 
and permitted an easy descent into the amphitheatre. 

The inner walls of the outer cone, where too steep for trees and 
shrubs, are densely and evenly clothed with Pogonatherum saccharoideum^ 
along with which are associated patches of Desmodium polycarpon, 
OnycMum auratum, Pteris hiaurita, Neplirolepis tuberosa (found also 
within the crater), and Fimbristylis diphylla. On one somewhat damp 
spot, where there had been recently a small landslip, were found, on 
the otherwise bare soil, some plants of Pteris longifoUa, Oplismenus 
Burmanni, Physalis minima and Yandellia Crustacea (this last was also 
obtained inside the crater). On the inner northern wall of the outer 
cone, which is heaped with ashes, thei’e is hardly more vegetation than 
on the inner cone itself, the only species that grows being the Fimbristylis 
found on the cone. At the base of the cliff which forms the inner 
southern wall there is a uniform but not very dense forest the com¬ 
monest species in which are Terminalia Gatappa (certainly the most 
abundant tree on the island), Eugenia Jambolana and CalUcarpa arborea 
(both very common), Semecarpus heterophylla, Oaruga pinnata, Ixora 
cuneifolia, Ardisia humilis, Oroxylum indicum, Macaranga Tanarius, Trema 
amboinensis. Quite a feature is the extent to which a wild vine, Vitis 
repens, prevails in this area; among other creepers noted were Gyclea 
peltata (not seen in Narcondam), Abrus precatorius, and two Bioscoreas 
(only one apparently occurring in Narcondam). Another noteworthy 
feature of this forest is the presence, though not in great quantity, of 
a species of Bendrobrium. The bare rocks in the gorges over which 
water in the rains must pour in cascades are here and there covered 
with dried-up masses of fresh-water Alga, Galothrix tasmanica. 

The forest on the outside of the outer cone is much like that just 
described though the trees are more weather-beaten. The species pre¬ 
sent inside are all met with outside also, but though Terminalia 
Gatappa is still undoubtedly the most plentiful tree, and there are many 

considering the limited time at the writer’s disposal, to justify another attempt. 
The majority of the gorges on the south side of the Island have an eastward, 
tendency, and are thus unlike those in the north side which are more truly radial j 
this circumstance led to the selection of a point for descent too far along the rim. 

2G9 


66 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

examples of Ficus Fumphii and Ficus nitida, witli a considerable 
number of Ficus cuspidifera. The two Bioscoreas are very common 
climbers ; Capparis sepiaria is exceedingly common as a climber, or 
rather as an undershrub, in the forest; Oloriosa superha was seen in 
the seaface jungle on the east side of the island; Adiantum lunu- 
latum, another species not seen in Narcondam, is very common on 
the outside of the outer cone. On bare rocks near the sea Boerhaavia 
repens is plentiful, and species of the littoral class noted at the points 
where landings were effected include Hibiscus tiliaceus, Sterculia ruhi- 
ginosa, Coluhrina asiatica, Ixora hrunnescens, Pluchea indica, Wedelia 
scandens, Sccevola Koenigii, Premna integrifolia, Glochidion calocarpum, 
Gelonium hifarium. Terminalia Catappa, a truly littoral species, spreads 
here from base to top of the outer cone; the same is true of Morinda 
hracteata, another plentiful sea-coast species. Cocos and Pandanus have 
been already mentioned as occurring only at Anchorage Bay. 

The question regarding the Coco-nut trees on Barren Island is some¬ 
what simpler than in the case of Narcondam, for they have not been deli¬ 
berately planted: at the same time it cannot be contended that they 
afford an unequivocal instance of introduction by the sea. It is not clear 
that any one has ever landed at Anchorage Bay ;* it is certain that for 
the greater part of the year, to attempt to do so would be very danger¬ 
ous. At the same time when ships call they usually anchor at this 
place, and it is not improbable that during some such visit a coco-nut 
dropping overboard has been washed ashore and germinated in the drift 
collected by the roots of the sea-fence. Man indirectly, rather than 
the sea, may therefore be supposed to have been the introducing agent. 

Fungi were as scarce on Barren Island as in Narcondam, and the 
only moss met with was Bryum coronatum. 

To complete the account of these islands mention must be made of 
Flat Hock, situated, as has been already mentioned, in Lat. 11° 12' N., 
and Lon. 93° 86' E., 80 miles south-south-west of Barren Island, 60 

* From the Report of the Andamans’ Committee already referred to [Proceedings, 
As. Soc. Bengal, 1866, p. 215) it would appear that their experience was quite that of 
the writer. The passage is interesting and is worth quoting verbatilm :—“ The only 
“ place where there seemed any chance, was on the south-west, where a small 
“ sandy-heach, with a heavy surf running, was discovered, above which four old 
“ cocoanut trees were seen. A boat was sent towards the shore and got bottom at 35 
“ fathoms, but as we had not much time to spare, the whole of the ground could 
“ not be gone over, * * The italics are the writer’s ; the passage will be referred 
to again in the systematic list of the plants collected. It is strange that though 
from the year 1866 onwards these coco-nut trees have been used as the guide-mark 
to the safest anchorage on the coast of this island, neither Hume, Ball nor Mallet, in 
their accounts of the island, have noted their presence, 

270 


Flora of N'arcoudam and Barren Island. 67 

miles east-sonth-east of Rutland Island, and the same distance due east 
of the opening, Duncan Passage, between Rutland Island and Little 
Andaman. The rock appears above the surface, and no more ; but though 
so much smaller as a suhaerial peak than Barren Island or N’arcoudam, 
as a submarine peak it is evidently larger than either, since its summit 
appears as a long narrow bank that carries from 15 to 80 fathoms of 
water; this bank does not extend to the east or the west for more than 
two miles from the Rock, hut towards the south extends at least 10 
miles, to the north more than 20 miles. Beyond the edge of this hank—■ 
the Invisible Bank of the Admiralty maps—the lead sinks at once into 
deeper water. The Bank itself has been carefully surveyed hut of the 
absolute depths of the soundings just beyond we know little or nothing, 
so that though this survey is invaluable to navigators, from a hydrogra¬ 
phical point of view it leaves much to be desired. Meagre however as 
its details are it shows that the soundings are deeper towards the east, 
south, and west than they are towards the north. The following Table 
indicates the soundings shown in the Admiralty maps :— 


Table III .—Soundings in the vicinity of Flat Rock. 


General direction of 

LINE OF SOUNDINGS. 

Distance in miles from 

ROCK. 

Depth in fathoms. 

N. N. E. 

1 

14 

N. N. E. 

10 

25 

N. N. E. 

13 

27 

N. 

5 

38 

N. 

15 

80 

N. W. 

5 

16 

N, W. 

10 

59 

N. W. 

15 

168 

W 

10 

90 (no bottom.) 

W. 

35 

600 

s. w. 

3^ 

78 

s. s. w. 

8 

35 

s. s. w. 

16 

200 (no bottom.) 

S. E. 

2 

16 

S. E. 

7 

48 

S. E. 

12 

200 (no bottom.) 


Along the east side of the bank none of the soundings made have 
touched bottom, but they show that the edge drops into deep water 
within 5 miles of a line running from south-south-west to north-north-east 

271 


















58 


Flora o/Narcondam and Barren Island. 

through the rock; along this line the soundings show a rather sharp 
ridge with relatively shallower soundings for the whole length of 
the hank; this line, it is hardly necessary to repeat, is that on which 
both ISTarcondam and Barren Island also show their shallowest sound¬ 
ings, while the axes of all three islands indicated hy this direction form 
very nearly a continuous straight line. 

The nature of the bottom on this bank is only mentioned in the case 
of one sounding; this depth, 25 fathoms, gives, as might be expected, 
coral; it would be interesting to ascertain whether the subaerial portion, 
Flat Rock itself, is part of a raised coral reef, or a remnant of an origin¬ 
ally larger island of volcanic structure. Raised coral reefs occur in the 
Andamans to the west, and in the ISTicobars to the south ; it may there¬ 
fore be anticipated that here it will be found that the subaerial portion 
of the bank is weathered coral; at the same time it would be more satis¬ 
factory to have the question settled by a visit to the rock. Reasoning 
from analogy, however, there is little doubt that the basis of this coral 
bank is a submarine volcanic peak, and that it forms but one of a series 
to which the others also belong. 

Our knowledge of the bottom-contour of the Andaman Sea is not 
so satisfactory as is that of the Sea of Bengal. English geographers 
e:ive no attention to the point; German geographers have mapped the 
sea somewhat hastily and from rather meagre data. Thus Berghaus 
indicates by the contour lines in a map of “Heights and Depths”* 
that a deep gap, connecting the Sea of Bengal and the Andaman Sea, 
exists between Achin Head in Sumatra and the Mcobars. It has how¬ 
ever long been known that the ridge in this channel carries only 760 
fathoms of water. In a larger map f Berghaus shows deep water as 
overlying not only the ridge between the Hicobars and Sumatra, but 
also over that between the Andamans and ISTicobars and, what is quite 
unaccountable, between Preparis and the Coco Group ; this last channel 
has long been known to carry no more than 150 fathoms. As regards 
that between Little Andaman and the ISTicobars, Carpenter had, on 
grounds of temperature, predicted what Hoskyn has since shown to be 
true, that the ridge under it could carry at the utmost 740 fathoms ; its 
actual depth is 736 fathoms. In this map also two soundings are shown 
in the meridian of Lon. 96° 10' E., one of them in Lat. 11° 35' H., for 

* Stieler’s Hand Atlas, Sheet 8, dated 1878. 

t Stieler’s Hand Atlas, Sheet 67, dated 1881 and revised to 1884; scale 1: 
12,500,000. Perhaps the contour line in this map means the 100 fathom line ; this 
would explain the shading in the straits mentioned. If so, it is too far from land, 
and coincides with the 1000 fathom line rather than the 100 fathom one. 

272 


59 


Flora 0 /Narcondam and Bari’en Island, 

-wliicli 2300 fathoms are indicated ; the other in Lat. 12° 30' N. gives 
2097 fathoms. These sonndings appear to be devoid of authority ; at 
all events they are quite wrong.* 

A more reliable map is, however, to be found in the same work.f 
This map, designed by Petermann and drawn by Habenicht, is, unfortu¬ 
nately for our purpose, on a smaller scale than Berghaus’ map. It shows 
Carpenter’s Ridge jutting southward into the 2000 fathom line imme¬ 
diately to the west of the Andamans; shows comparatively shallow 
water (between the 100 and the 1000 fathom lines), in the two channels 
between the Andamans and Sumatra, and indicates a depth of 1137 
fathoms in Lon. 96° IP E. and in Lat. 12° 24' N.—practically the situa¬ 
tion of Berghaus’ 2097 fathom mai'k ; this sounding indicated by Peter¬ 
mann has the advantage of being a real one. Going further into 
detail however, one finds that not even Petermann’s map gives any idea 
of the true state of affairs within this sea | Eor the 1000 fathom line 
is there shewn as enclosing a long and narrow trough half way between 
the Andamans and Tenasserim ; the three peaks that have just been 
described are therefore shown as springing from a slope that trends up¬ 
wards from the bottom of this trough to the Andaman ridge. Instead, 
however, of indicating a line to the eastward of these peaks the 1000 
fathom line passes westward between Rarcondam and Barren Island to 
within 30 miles of the east coast of Middle Andaman, where soundings 
of 1130 and 1159 fathoms have been obtained ; these, it maybe remarked, 
close inshore though they be, have proved (with the exception of a 
veritable sounding of 1284 fathoms 50 miles east of little Ricobar, and 
of a doubtful sounding that gives 1260 fathoms with no bottom in Lon. 
95° 30' E, and Lat. 11° 45' R.) the deepest soundings yet obtained in the 
Andaman Sea, and are more than 100 fathoms deeper than the deepest 
indicated along the line that connects Barren Island with Rarcondam. 

There is no doubt that taken collectively these three peaks indicate 
a northward continuation of the line of volcanic activity known as the 
“ Sunda Range,” which stretches up from Sambaw^a and Elores through 
Java and Sumatra at least to Barren Island. Von Buch in his work on 


* In a previous paper (Journ. As. Soc. Beng. lx. pt. 2, p. 284) the writer was 
misled by these soundings, which he supposed to have some foundation, into giving 
the depth of the Andaman Sea as over 2,000 fathoms. 

•]■ Stieler’s Hand Atlas, Sheet 58, dated 1884; scale 1 : 30,000,000. 

J In criticising these maps the writer would wish it understood that it is from 
no desire to cavil that he points out their defects; it is only because they are worthy 
of criticism that reference is made to them. Except the Admiralty maps, which 
are above reproach, no English map with which the writer is acquainted deserves 
to be mentioned alongside of those in Stieler’s work. 


273 


60 Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

volcanoes did not carry the chain beyond Barren Island, but Griffith, 
who in passing Narcondam recognised its volcanic natnre, suggested 
to McClelland that here might be seen a northward extension of the 
same chain. McClelland not only adopted the suggestion but sought a 
still further extension to the north, in the mud-volcanoes of Ramri and 
Cheduba, ofE the Arracan coast ;* * * § and other writers, such as Daubeny, 
Scrope, Mrs. Somerville and Mallettf have adopted the same view. 

Ramri and Cheduba lie to the west of a tertiary ridge that composes 
the Tomah of Arracan, which, in the latitude of Ramri, reaches a 
height of 4,000 feet. This range is continued southward into and 
beyond the Andaman group. Thus it passes through Diamond Island 
to the Alguada reef, beyond this, across a channel less than 60 fathoms 
deep, to Preparis, and again across another of 160 fathoms to the Coco 
Group, Great Andaman and Little Andaman. It would appear after 
this to pass to the westward of the Nicobars, though its precise relation¬ 
ship to that group has not yet been made clear ; finally it reappears, not 
in Sumatra, but in a long line of islands—the Nias group—that stretches 
south-eastward along the western coast of Sumatra.J The line of 
volcanic activity to which Barren Island and Narcondam presumably 
belong, lies from Narcondam southwards to the east of this tertiary 
ridge; if, therefore, Ramri and Cheduba belong to the same line, we 
have to believe that, after continuing for the whole length of Sumatra 
and the Andamans parallel to this ridge, the volcanic line at its nor¬ 
thern end, where its activity is weaker than elsewhere, crosses the 
tertiary formations where they have become thicker and stronger. 
This is in itself a proposition, the truth of which is so hard to accept, 
that when Blanford§ suggests that the true northern continuation 
of the Sunda volcanic range is to be found in the extinct Burmese 
volcano of Popah, and the extinct Yunnan one of Han-shuen-shan, we 
realise that he must be right, and are surprised that, after all. Mallet is 
inclined, in a modified sense, to favour the earlier view.|| The volcanoes 
of Ramri are of a different type from those of the Sunda Range; they 
belong to a series of gas vents, all of the same general character, though 
none of them so active as the Ramri ones. The Sitakund in Chittagong, 

* McClelland, Joum. As. Soc. Beng., vii., 77. 

t Mallet does this (Eecords of the Geol. Survey of India, xi., 203) in a different 
sense from the earlier writers; they, owing to a want of definiteness in the accounts 
on which they relied, mistook the “ gas ” volcanoes of the Arracan Coast for true 
“ steam ” volcanoes. 

ij; Kurz : Journ. As. Soc. Beng., xlv., pt. 2, 105. 

§ Manual of the Geology of India, iii., 725. 

II Mallet: Memoirs of the Geol. Survey of India, xxi., 253. 

274 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 


61 


and the various hot springs in the valley of Assam, like those in the 
ISTamha Forest,* are examples of this series, which forms a continuous 
line parallel on its western side to the tertiary ridge referred to, just as 
the true volcanoes, to the line of which Barren Island, Narcondam and 
Popah belong, are parallel to it on the east.f 

Whether they belong to that particular group of volcanoes known 
as the Sunda Range, or not, there is no doubt that Rarcondam and 
Barren Island belong to the general volcanic system extending from 
the Kuriles, through Japan and the Philippines, to Malaya—a system 
of which the Sunda Range itself forms but a portion. Like the other 
members of this system, these peaks are situated, not on, but just within, 
the margin of the continental elevation forming Eastern and South- 
Eastern Asia, wherever this rises abruptly from great ocean-depths; the 
main difference between them and most of the peaks of the system is 
that, whereas the space between the edge of the continental area and 
the line of volcanic activity is in other cases sub-aerial, that space is here 
for the most part sub-marine. This space forms, in the case of Sumatra, 
the main body of the island—the volcanic line being much nearer the 
eastern margin—and the rocks of which it is composed include all those 
that go to form the islands of the Nicobar Group; these rocks appear 
once more, not in the main chain of the Andamans, but in the small 
islands to the east of South Andaman (north-east of Port Blair) known 
as “ The Archipelago.’’^: Neither in, nor opposite, the Nicobars is there 
any trace of the complementary volcanic ridge ; to the east of this “ Archi¬ 
pelago,” however, it is indicated by Flat Rock and Barren Island. 

Not only is the volcanic line of Sumatra absent from the Nicobars, 
but no trace has yet been found in that group of the sandstones of the 
Arracan hills, which are prolonged into the main chain of the Andamans 
and which reappear in the Nias, The result, therefore, is that the 
Arracan-Sumatra chain, in place of constituting a single ridge consists 

* Prain : Proceedings As. Soc. Bengal, 1887, p. 201. 

t The reasons for thinking that the northward prolongation of the Sunda 
Range has not crossed the Arracan-Andaman ridge are, therefore :— 

1. That the volcanoes on the west side of that ridge, which are supposed to 
continue the Sunda line, are of a different type from the volcanoes of the Sunda 
Range. 

2. That these western volcanoes in Ramri belong to a system of vents of the 
same type as themselves, characterised by a linear distribution parallel to the 
western base of the Arracan-Andaman tertiary ridge. 

3. That the Sunda Range is continued northward by a series of vents of the 
same type throughout, the character of linear distribution parallel to the eastern 
base of the Arracan-Andaman tertiary ridge being maintained unaltered. 

1 Oldham : Records of the Geol. Survey of India, xviii., 141. 


275 


62 


Mora of Narcondam and JBarren Island. 

of two—a western tertiary ridge most marked in the north and tailing 
off towards the south, and an eastern volcanic ridge most marked in the 
south and dwindling into insignificance northwards. 

The question whether the line in which Narcondam, Barren Island, 
and Flat Rock are situated consists of a series of isolated peaks, or if 
these peaks are only the sub-aerial portions of a continuous ridge, remains 
to be considered. Such evidence as there is appears to indicate that 
they are situated on a ridge : it is not, however, at all complete. It has 
already been remarked that the soundings on a line passing north-north¬ 
east from Narcondam are relatively shallower than those on any other 
line. This has been explained by Carpenter as perhaps indicating that 
the deltaic shelf of the Irrawady extends as far out as Narcondam.* 
It may be anticipated that this will not be found a sufficient explana¬ 
tion of the phenomenon. It will be observed that the soundings gradu¬ 
ally deepen for a space of 9| miles, till the bottom carries 362 fathoms, 
and that beyond this point it gradually shallows till the coast of Pegu 
is reached. If Narcondam were situated on the edge of a delta-shelf, 
one would expect that the soundings would not show so great a dip within 
its margin, and would further expect that soundings on lines carried at 
right angles to the line under discussion would give some indication of 
a more or less level area. Yet what we do find is that, before four miles 
to the east or three miles to the west of the island have been reached, 
greater depths have been obtained than the deepest sounding on the 
north-north-east line. This appears to indicate that Narcondam is not 
so much on the edge of a shelf, as at the end of a ridge that runs towards 
and into the Pegu coast-line. That this ridge is overlaid by the deltaic 
mud to within ten miles of Narcondam, and that the presence of this 
mud explains the gentle slope from its deepest point upwards to the 
Pegu coast is no doubt true; but the steady rise during the last ten 
miles towards Narcondam, coupled with the more abrupt dips to the 
east and to the west, indicate the existence of a ridge. The matter is 
capable of direct demonstration : a few lines of deep-sea soundings co¬ 
ordinate to the line of soundings taken towards the north-north-east, 
will disclose the true state of matters. It would also be equally easy, 
by making a line of borings along the continuation of its line, and a few 
co-ordinate lines across in the mud of the Irrawady delta, to demonstrate 
whether the supposed ridge passes subterraneously into Burma. 

The same comparative shallowness is indicated by the line of 
soundings to the south-south-west of Barren Island, and to explain the 
fact Malletf suggests the possibility of eruptions of ash distributed 

* Carpenter : Records of the Geol. Survey of India, xxi., 48. 

t Mallet : Records of the Geol. Survey of India, xxi., 47. 

276 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 


63 


in this particular direction by the action of currents. It would seem 
easier, however, to explain these soundings by supposing that Barren 
Island formed the northern termination of a ridge on which Flat Rock 
with Invisible Bank, is situated. Here, too, the matter is easily capable 
of demonstration: soundings on a line bearing from Barren Island to 
Flat Rock, with one or two transverse lines of soundings will show 
whether such a ridge exists. 

The hypothesis that in Harcondam we see a continuation of the 
Sunda line of volcanic activity is not invalidated by the depth of the 
soundings between it and Barren Island. We know that there is a much 
deeper gap than this between two members of the same chain: in the 
well-known rift between Bali and Lombok, though the islands mentioned 
are only 15 miles apart, the narrow strait between is 2,100 fathoms 
deep.* And as a matter of fact, though the ridge is here deeper, it is by 
no means absent, for a sounding on the line bearing from Narcondam 
on Barren Island gives only 1,010 fathoms, while soundings to the west 
of that line, and between the supposed ridge and the Andamans, give 
1,140, 1,159, and 1,130 fathoms. Though our knowledge of the bottom 
contour of the southern part of the Andaman Sea—the portion to the 
east of the Nicobars—is very defective, the little that we know bears 
out the hypothesis of an eastern as well as a westeim ridge. At a point 
50 miles east of Little Nicobar a sounding of 1,284 fathoms is recorded, 
while 30 miles further east the bottom is only 1,000 fathoms deep. Then 
north of Pulo Rondo, in Lon. 95° 10' E., the depth is 990 fathoms, while 
20 miles further east it is only 930 fathoms. These soundings of 930 and 
1,000 fathoms not improbably indicate the ridge on which Flat Rock, 
Barren Island, and Narcondam are situated. The 990 and 1,284 fathom 
soundings must indicate the trough between the ridges; for to the west 
of the latter lies the Nicobar Glroup, and to the west of the former, in 
Lon, 94° 20' E., we find a depth of 975 fathoms, doubtless indicative of 
the western or Indian Ocean slope of the Nicobar-Sumatra ridge, since 
25 miles further north, in Lon. 94° 26' E., we have a sounding of 760 
fathoms indicating the crest of that ridge. The soundings referred to 
are shown on the two maps that accompany this paper. 

There is, pex’haps, some connection between the depth of the rift 
separating Narcondam from Barren Island, and the fact that from Barren 
Island itself southwards the volcanoes either still are, or have till re¬ 
cently, been active, while those from Narcondam northwards have long- 
been extinct. This has a certain bearing on another controverted point. 
Von Buch, as has been already stated, recognised the Sunda volcanic lino 

* Wallace, Island Life, 423 (map). 

277 


64 


Flora of Nai’CO:idam and Barrea Island. 

as extending to, but not beyond, Barren Island. To Blanford is due tbe 
merit of having upset the fanciful hypothesis of the further extension 
of the line across the Arracan Yomah, and of having suggested its pro¬ 
bably ti-ue northern continuation. More recently it has been proposed"^ 
by Berghaus and others to sub-divide the extended Sunda line of Blan¬ 
ford into a Sunda Range proper, ending at the northern limit of Sumatra, 
and a Pegu Range, containing Barren Island, Rarcondam, Popah and 
Han-shuen-shan. But it is obvious that if any sub-division be necessary, 
the one proposed by Berghaus is erroneous. A sudden deep gap in the 
line, with the further character of activity to the south of it, and non¬ 
activity to the north, is a much more natural cleavage than merely a 
number of miles of intervening sea, the nature of whose bottom is un¬ 
known or has been misunderstood. If therefore Berghaus be justified 
in differentiating a Pegu Range, it is clear that Barren Island must be 
excluded from it, and that we must return to Von Buch’s view, that 
Barren Island is the most northerly member of the Sunda Range. The 
Pegu Range of very old and long extinct volcanoes begins then at 
Narcondam, and extends at least as far as south-western Yunnan. 

The biological interest of these islands is not so great as the phy- 
siographical, because, whether the ridge here postulated exists or not, 
there is little doubt that these sub-aerial portions never have been con¬ 
nected with any of the adjacent lands. If Plat Rock has ever been sub¬ 
aerial, and in a fit condition to shelter air-breathing creatures and 
support vegetation, it is so no longer; how great soever may be the 
antiquity of the outer cone of Barren Island, it is probable from its con¬ 
figuration, that at one time it has been the scene of a catastrophe like 
that which in 1883 devastated Krakatau and totally destroyed its 
animal and vegetable life. The only one that, from its topography, has 
evidently remained for many ages in its present condition is Narcondam. 
Already the writer has laid before this society some notes on the Fauna 
of the islands f ; R remains now to be seen whether the biological facts 
indicated by their Flora are in agreement with the deductions that 
should follow from their physiographical configuration. 

All the plants found in the two islands are enumerated in the list 
that follows ; running numbers are added to the locality so as to show 
at a glance how many species occur in each. In the discussion that 
succeeds the list the peculiarities of each island are dealt with before 
their common characteristics are considered. 

* Stieler : Hand Atlas, sheet 8. 

t Prain ; Proceedings Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1892, p. 109. 


278 



Flora of 'N'arcondam and BaiTen Island 


65 


Plants collected in N'arcondam and Barren Island. 

I. MENISPERMACE^. i. 

1. Anamirta Cocculus W. & A. Nai’ccndam (1). 

India, Indo-Cliina, Malaya. 

2. Cyclba peltata H. F. & T. Barren Island (1). 

Andamans, N’icobars, Burma, 

3. Antitaxis calocarpa Kurz. N^arcondam (2), common. 

Andamans and N’icobars. 

II. CAPPARIDE^. II. 

4. Capparis sepiaria Linn,, var. grandieolia Kurz. N'arcondam (3) ; 
Barren Island (2) ; common. 

Andamans, Burma, Malaya; tbe variety does not occur in India. 

6. Capparis tenera Dalz., var. latieolia H. f. & T. Narcondam (4). 
Andamans, Tenasserim; tbe variety does not occur in India. 

III. VIOLARIE^. — . 

6. Alsodeia bengalensis 'Wall. Narcondam (5). 

Assam, Burma, Andamans, Nicobars. 

IV. GUTTIFER^. —. 

7. Calophyllum inophyllum Linn. Narcondam (6) ; beach-forest. 
Mascarene Isds.; S. E. Asia ; Australia; Polynesia. 

V. MALVACE^. III. 

8. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn. Narcondam (7); Barren Island (3). 
Cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores. 

9. Thespesia populnea Corr. Narcondam (8). 

On tropical coasts throughout the Eastern Hemisphere. 

10. Bombax insigne Wall., var. polystemon Prain; var. nov. caudice 
armata, foliolis 7-9, sessilibus anguste lanceolatis, subtus glaucescenti- 
bus, staminibus plurimis (circa 700); capsula 3'5 — 4 poll, longa: flori- 
bus rubris. Narcondam (9); common. 

India, Indo-China, Andamans, Malaya ; this variety endemic. 

There has been some confusion as regards the Asiatic species of Bombax; the 
writer, therefore, takes this opportunity of giving diagnoses of all of them. His 
excuse for doing so in this place, is that it was the difficulty of localising this tree 
that led to the study of the genus. 

Bombaces Asiatics. 

Arbores (ordinis Maltacearum) grandes, saltern jnniores caudice armatse foliis 
digitatis ; calyce coriaceo ; stylo simplici; frnctu capsnlari, segmentis 5 ; seminibus 
lana endorcarpii involntis. 

Fructus segmentis crassissime coriaceis, seminibus sarcinis 

279 


66 


Flora of Narcondani and Barren Island. 


lano3 propriis clistincte involutis ; corticc diu viridi: tubo 
staminali l-seriali, segmentis 5, 1-3-antberis, petalis alter- 
nis ; floribus minoribus sordide luteo-albis... Bomlax pentandmm (Erioden- 

dron anfractuosiim). 

[In India peninsulari et in insulis Andamanensibns, indi- 
gena et sylvestris; in India boreali, in Indo-China et 
preesertim in Malaya late cnlta et forsan inquilina.] 

Fructus segmentis ligneis, lana endocarpii vix in sarcinis 
distinctis segregata; cortice mox cinerascente; floribus 
maximis, saepissime rnbris :— 

Tubo staminali 5-seriali, serie interiori segmentis 5, 

2-antberis, petalis alternis, cum serie altera stamini- 
bus simplicibus, 1-antheris, 10 per paria petalis 
oppositis fascem centralem stylum amplectentem 
formante; ceteris in pbalangibus 2-cruralibus 5, 
petalis oppositis dispositis, staminibus phalangium 
singularum sub-12, omnibus binis 1-antheris ; folio- 
lis longius petiolulatis, laminis acuminato-caudatis 
subtus viridibus; stylo longibrachiato; capsula 

velutina. .. Bomhax malaharicum. 

[In India peninsulari et boreali, in China australi et Indo- 
China, in archipelagine Malayana, insulis Philippinensi- 
bus et Australia boreali-orientali frequens.] 

Tubo staminali multiseriali, staminibus omnibus binis 
1-antheris, serie interiori (forsan cum serie altera 
tantum speciei praecedentis comparanda) stamini¬ 
bus 20 petalis oppositis annulum stylum amplecten¬ 
tem formante; ceteris in phalangibus 2-cruralibus 
5, petalis oppositis dispositis, staminibus phalangium 
singularum numerosis; foliolis breve petiolutatis 
vel sessilibus, laminis acutis; stylo brevibrachiato j 

capsula glabra. Bomhax insigne. 

[In India peninsulari occidentali; in Indo-China et in 
Malaya.] 

Bomhax fentandrum and B. malaharicum are wonderfully uniform in the number 
and arrangement of the elements of their staminal whorl; B. insigne, while equally 
uniform as regards the arrangement, varies considerably as regards the number 
of stamens in its phalanges. The subjoined key shows the distinguishing features 
and relative position of the most important of these varieties. 

Tubo staminali ovario plus duplo longiore 
foliolis subsessilibus late lanceolatis, 
subtus viridibus glabris ; floribus albis j 

(capsula ignota) . Bomhax insigne, sub.-sp. anceps [B. 

anceps Pierre). B. malaharici var. 
alhiflora Wall. [Cat. n. 1840/3 et 
1840/4] vel ad hanc sub-speciem, 
vel ad B. insignis genuini var. 
alham referenda est. 


280 





Flora of Nai’condam and 'narrcn Island. 


67 


[Burma (Shan) ; Cochin-China.] 


Taho staminali ovario vix longiore .. Bombax insigne, suB.-sr genuinn, 

Staminibus phalangium crnralibus 
ntrinqiie circa 20:— 

Staminibus phalangium singularnm 
inter-crnralibus circa 30, capsula 
(nnius ignota), 10-12-pollicari:— 

Foliolis snbsessilibus late lanceo- 
latis vel obovato-mucronatis, 
subtus glaucescentibus; flori- 

bns rubris . var. typica (B. insigne WtiW ; B. fes- 

tivum Wall. [Cat. 1841]). 
[Chittagong; Arracan ; Pegu.] 


Foliolis snbsessilibus late lanceo- 
latis, subtns viridibus gla- 

bris; floribus albis. var. alba (Salmalia malabarica 

Hort. Bogor., neq;uaquam Schott). 
[Java, cnlta ; forsan Burma {vide supra B. anceps),^ 

Foliolis breve petiolulatis an- 
gpiste lanceolatis, subtns 
glaucescentibus; floribus ru¬ 
bris . .. var. andamanica. 


[Andamans; ins. Cocos]. 

Foliolis breve petiolulatis an- 
guste lanceolatis, subtus 
puberulis; (florum colore 
ab autore neglecto; capsula 

ignota) . var. cambodiensis [B. canibodiense 

Pierre. 

[Cambodia.] 

Staminibus phalangium singularnm 
intercruralibus circa 60, capsula 
10—12-pollicari, foliolis subsessili- 
bus late lanceolatis, floribus ru¬ 
bris . var. WighHi. 

[India; in prov. Kanara, Anamallai, Malabar.] 

Staminibus phalangium singularnm 
intercruralibus circa 90 ; capsula 
3-4-pollicari tantum; foliolis 
sessilibus anguste lanceolatis, sub¬ 
tus glaucescentibus; floribus ru¬ 
bris .. ••• Yar. poly stem 07}, 

[Narcondam.] 


Staminibus phalangium crnralibus utriu- 
que 10; phalangium singularnm in¬ 
tercruralibus circa 30 ; capsula 10-12- 
pollicari ; foliolis breve petiolulatis 


281 









68 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

lanceolatis subtus viriclibus glabris, 

floribus viridescentibus . ■'^ar. larutensis 

[Perak ; prov. Larut: forsaii etiam in archipelagine Malayana 
apud Priaman], 

It will be noted that the writer is unable to perpetuate the generic rank 
{Eriodendron) assigned by DeCandolle to the Linnean Bombax pentandrum. When 
the differences in the staminal columns of the three ‘species’ here recognised 
are reduced to the simplest possible terms, we observe that in B. pentandrum this 
whorl consists of but one element, the items of which are alternate with the petals ; 
that in B. insigne, likewise, there is but one element, the items of which are opposite 
the petals; that in B. malaharicum, on the other hand, both these elements occur. 
Either, therefore, Bomhax malaharicum and Bomhax insigne typify two genera as 
distinct from each other as Eriodendron is from either; or, as is here proposed, all 
three are congeneric. In another place the writer hopes to show that he is right 
in thinking, with Schumann, that Pachira does not deserve to be removed generi- 
cally from Bomhax ; that he is justified in further reducing Chorisia to Eriodendron, 
and therefore also to Bomhax; and is entitled to believe, with Willdenow, that the 
characters which separate Adansonia from Bomhax are too trivial to be generic. 

On the other hand, it will be noted that the material of some of the forms 
included in B. insigne is not yet complete, and it will be readily understood that 
writers who recognise as distinct the ‘ genera ’ referred to in the preceding paragraph, 
will be still more apt to treat as specifically separable the various forms of B. insigne 
here defined. No work on Indian Botany hitherto published notes B. insigne as 
Indian; the tree, when mentioned, is stated to occur only in Indo-China, 

VI. STERCULIACE^. iv. 

11. Sterculia eubigniosa Vent., var. glabrescens King. Karcondam 
(10); Barren Island (4). 

Andamans and Nicobar coasts, general; the variety only. 

—. Heritiera littoralis Dryand. Narcondam, fruits on beach, E. 
Bay; Barren Island, fruits on beach at Landing-place Cove : not found 
growing in either island. 

VII. TILIACE^. —. 

12. Grewia L.fflviGATA Vahl. Narcondam (11) ; in leaf only. 

Africa ; India, Burma, Malaya ; Australia. 

VIII. RUTACEAil. — . 

13. GltcOSMis pentaphtlla Corr. Narcondam (12). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

IX. BURSERACE^. v. 

14. Garuga pinnata Roxb. Narcondam (13) ; Barren Island (5) ; in 
both islands common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

—. Canarium euphtllum Kurz. Narcondam ? 

The leaves of this species occur in Herb. Calcutta, and are given as from 

282 



Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 


69 


Narcondam, on the authority of the Andaman Deputation of 186G, by whom the 
specimen was collected j the writer did not see the tree in 1891. As the depu¬ 
tation visited the Coco Group (where the species does occur) as well as Nar¬ 
condam, and as there are many other errors of locality on the tickets of their 
collection, the species, though here mentioned, is not formally included in the list. 

A. MELIACE^. — . 

15. Amoora Rohituka W. & A. Harcondam (14). 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

16. Amoora decandra Hiern. Narcondam (15). 

Central and Eastern Himalaya ; Malaya. 

— . Cabafa MOZUCCENSis Lamk. Narcondam; seeds on beach, E. Bay. 

xr. OLACINEH]. — . 

17. Cansjera Rheedei G-mel. Narcondam (16). 

India, Burma, Malaya; N. Australia; S. China. 

18. Apodttes andamanica Kurz. Narcondam (17). 

Andamans. 

XII. RHAMNE^. VI. 

19. COLUBRINA ASIATICA Brogn. Narcondam (18) ; Barren Island (6) . 
Africa ; India and Ceylon ; Burma, Malaya ; N. Australia. 

20. Gouania leptostachta Brogn. Narcondam (19), very plentiful. 
India, Burma, Malaya. 

XIII. AMPELIDE^. VII. 

21. ViTis REPENS W. & A. Barren Island (7), very common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

22. ViTis CARNOSA Wall. Narcondam (20), common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

23. ViTis LANCEOLARiA Roxb. Narcoudam (21). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

24. Leea sambucina Willd. Narcondam (22) ; Barren Island (8). 
India, Burma, Malaya. 

XIV. SAPINDACEAE. viii. 

25. Erioglossum eduleBI. Narcondam (23), common; Barren Island (9). 
India, Burma, Malaya; N. Australia. 

26. Allophylus Cobbe B1. Narcoudam (24), at Coco Bay. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

27. DoDONiBA VISCOSA Linn. Barren Island (10), common in the valley 
south of the lava. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 


283 


70 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

XV. ANACARDIACE^. ix. 

28. Odina Wodier Roxb. Narcondam (25), very common. 

India, Indo-Cliina. 

29. Semecarpos heterophylla BL Narcondam (26); Barren Island (II). 
Indo-China, Andamans, Malaya. 

XVI. LEGUMIN-QS^. x. 

30. Dbsmodium polycarpon DO. ISTarcondam (27) ; Barren Island (12). 
East Africa; S.-E. Asia; Polynesia; Japan and China. 

31. Abrus precatorius Linn. Harcondam (28) ; Barren Island (13). 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

32. Erythrina indica Lamk. ISTarcondam (29), coast. Anchorage Bay. 
India, Burma, Malaya. 

33. Mucuna gigantea DC. Harcondam (30), common. 

^ India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Polynesia. 

34. Canavalia turgida Grah. Harcondam (31), Coco and East Bays. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

35. ViGNA LUTE A A. Gray. Rarcondam (32), on coast. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

36. Phaseolus adenanthus G. F. Mey. ISTarcondam (33), abundant on 
beach at East Bay. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

37. Dalbergia tamarindieolia Roxb. Barren Island (14). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

38. Dalbergia monosperma Dalz. Harcondam (34), coast north of 
Anchorage Bay. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; China. 

39. Derris scandens Benth. Rarcondam (35), East Bay, in sea-fence. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; China. 

40. PONGAMIA GLABRA Vent. Barren Island (15), one tree behind the 
beach at the landing-place, and close to the lava. 

Mascarene Isds ; India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; Polynesia. 

41. C^SALPINIA Bonducblla Plem. ISTarcondam (36), Coco Bay. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

42. Entada scandens Benth. ISTarcondam (37). 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

43. Acacia concinna DC. Rarcondam (38) ; Barren Island (16); common. 
India, Indo-China ; China. 

XVII. COMBRETACE^ xi. 

44. Terminalia Catappa Linn. ISTarcondam (39) ; Barren Island (17). 
Andamans, Malaya. 

I'liis is comparatively scarce iu Narcoudam, but on Barren Island it is un- 

284 


71 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

doubtedly the most numerously represented tree present. Though really a littoral 
species, it is not here confined to the shore, hut extends from base to summit of the 
outer cone on both sides wherever there is soil suitable for it to grow. Its general 
dispersal in the island has been largely assisted by the rats; they carry off the 
fruits in order to eat the fleshy outer portion. 

45. Gtrocarpus Jacqtj[nii Roxb. Narcondam (40). 

Africa; India, Indo-China, Malaya; Polynesia : not in the Mas- 
carene Islands or E. Africa. 

xyiii. MTRTACE^. xn. 

46. Eugenia Jambolana Linn, Barren Island (18), vexy common. 
India, Indo-Cbina, Malaya ; Australia. 

47. Barringtonia speciosa Forst. ISTai-condam (41). 

Ceylon ; Andamans, Malaya ; Australia ; Polynesia. 

The fruits of this species were picked up on the beaches in Barren Island, but 
the tree itself was not found growing. 

XIX. MELASTOMACE^, — . 

48. Memectlon edule Roxb. Harcondam (42). 

Ceylon ; Indo-Cbina, Andamans, Malaya ; Philippines. 

XX. CUCURBITACE^. — . 

49. TrtchoSANTHES palmata Roxb. Narcondam (43). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya; Australia; Japan and China. 

XXL RUBIACE^. XIII. 

60. Oldenlandia cortmbosa Linn. Barren Island (19), in the crater, 
America ; Africa ; India, Indo-China, Malaya, 

51. MusSjENDA macrophtlla Linn. Barren Island (20), common. 
Indo-China, Andamans. 

This plant, which is common in the valley between the cones, close to the lava, 
is one of the species reported by the Deputation of 1866; flowering specimens col¬ 
lected then are preserved in the Calcutta Herbarium, but are noted as being from 
Narcondam, not Barren Island. The species does not appear to occur in Narcondam, 
for the plant was carefully looked for there. The mistake on these tickets, which 
requires to be pointed out, since some of the specimens collected in 1866 may have 
reached Herbaria in Europe, is nevertheless a fortunate one, as it first called the 
attention of the writer to the fact that, though this Deputation only reported on 
Barren Island (Proc. As. Soc., Beng., 1866 , 215), it visited Narcondam also. The 
interest of this fact will be shown in discussing the presence of the Coco-nut. 

The species has here, owing to its situation, developed a shrubby habit, but care¬ 
ful examination of the complete material obtained by the writer, leads him to 
conclude that it cannot bo looked upon as even vai’ietally distinct. 


285 


72 


Flora of ^^arcondam and Barren Island. 

62. Guettaeda spbciosa Linn. Narcondam (44). 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

53. IxoKA BEUNNBSCENS Kurz. Narcondam (45), and Barren Island 
(21) ; common on the coasts. 

Andamans, 

54. IxoEA cuNEiBOLiA Roxb. Barren Island (22), within outer cone. 
Indo-China. 

55. Mokinda citeipolia Linn., ^;ar. beacteata H. f. (sp. Roxb.) Nar- 
condam (46), very common everywhere, from sea-level to the top of the 
hill, at 2300 feet elev.; Barren Island (23), common. 

India, Indo-China, Andamans. 

56. PiEBEEiA PCETIDA Linn. Karcondam (47). 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

XXII. COMPOSITE. XIV. 

57. Veenonia diveegens Benth. Rarcondam (48), on coast. 

India, Indo-China. 

58. Blumea glome rata DC. ISTarcondam (49), rocks, west coast. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; China. 

59. Blumea laciniata DO. bTarcondam (50), rocks east coast. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; China. 

60. .Blumea mtriocephala DO. Rarcondam (51), at 1500-1800 feet. 
Eastern Himalaya, Indo-China, Andamans. 

61. Pluchea iNDiCA Less. Harcondam (52), and Barren Island (24), 
on coasts ; common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; China. 

62. Webelia scandens C. B. Clarke. Harcondam (53), common on 
coasts ; Barren Island (25), coasts. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

xxiii. GOODEHOYIE^. xv. 

63. Sc^vOLA Kcenigii Yahl. Harcondam (64) ; Barren Island (26). 
India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; Polynesia. 

XXIV. MYRSHSTE.®. xvi. 

64. Aedisia humilis Yahl. Harcondam (55) ; Barren Island (27). 
India, Indo-China, Malaya ; China. 

XXV. SABOTAGED. — . 

65. SiDEEOXTLON FBERUGiNEUM H. & A. Narcondam (66). 

Malaya, Andamans ; China. 

This is another of the species obtained by the Deputation of 1866 : on this 
occasion the labels are correct. The form present here has unusually large leaves— 
in young trees they are 30 in. long by 12 in. across, 

286 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 


73 


66. Diosptros Ktjrzii Hiern. Narcondam (67). 

Andamans and Nicobars. 

XXVI. APOCYNE.^. XVII. 

67. Aganosma maeginata G. Don. Barren Island (28), very common 
in the valley between the cones, to the south of the lava. 

Indo-China, Malaya. 

68. Axodendron pakiculatum A. DO. ISTarcondam (58). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

xxvii. ASCLEPIADACE^. xviii. 

69. Ttlophora globifbra H. f. ? ISTarcondam (59) ; in fruit only. 
Andamans. 

70. Hoya parasitica Wall. Harcondam (60); Barren Island (29). 
Indo-China, Malaya. 

71. Hoya diversipolia B1. (TST. orliculata Wall.) hTarcondam (61) ; 
Barren Island (30). 

Indo-China, Malaya. 

72. Dischima nummularia B. Br. Harcondam (62). 

Indo-China, Malaya; Australia. 

xxviii. EBEHACE^. xix. 

73. Miteeola oldenlandioides Wall. Barren Island (31), abundant 
underneath a thicket of gregarious Flueggia to the north of the lava at 
Landing-place Cove ; not seen elsewhere. 

India, Burma, Malaya ; H. Australia. 

74. Strychnos acuminata Wall. ISTarcondam (63), once at 1600 feet. 
Burma, Andamans. 

XXIX. CONVOLVULACE^. xx. 

76. Ipomcea grandiplora Lamk. ISTarcondam (64) ; Barren Island (32). 
East Africa ; India, Indo-China ; Malaya, Australia, Polynesia. 

76. Ipomoea denticulata Choisy. ISTarcondam (65), at East Bay. 
Mascarene Islands; Laccadives and Ceylon ; Andamans, Indo-China, 

Malaya; Australia, Polynesia. 

77. Ipomcea turpethum R. Br. Narcondam (66), in the bed and round 
the edges of a small dry lagoon in the beach-forest at East Bay. 

Mascarene Islands; India, Indo-China, Malaya; Australia, Polynesia. 

78. Ipomcea biloba Forsk. Narcondam (67) ; Barren Island (33). 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

79. Ipomcea vitipolia Sw. Harcondam (68), Coco Bay, abundant. 
India, Burma, Malaya. 

80. Convolvulus parvifloeus Linn. hTarcondam (69), Anchorage Bay, 
Africa; Indo-China, Malaya; Australia. 


287 


74 


Flora of Narconclam and BaiTen Island. 


—. SOLANACE^. XXI. 

81. Phtsalis minima Linn. Barren Island (31), on a small landslip 
on outer cone, south of Landing-place Bay. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

—. SCROPHULARIHE^. xxii. 

82. Vandellia CRUSTACEA Beuth. Barren Island (35), on the small 
landslip, and also inside the crater. 

Africa; India, Indo-China, Malaya; Australia, Polynesia; China. 

XXX. BIGlSrOHIACE^. xxiii. 

83. Oroxtlum indicum Vent. Narcondam (70); Barren Island (36). 
India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

XXXI. ACAHTHACE^. xxiv. 

84. Eranthemum succifolium Kurz. RTarcondam (71); Barren Island (37). 
Andamans, Nicobars. 

XXXII. VERBEXACE^. xxv. 

85. Callicaepa arborea Roxb. Harcondam (72) ; Barren Island (38). 
India, Burma, Malaya. 

86. Premna integrifolia Linn. Warcondam (73); Barren Island (39). 
India, Indo-China, Andamans. 

87. Clerodendron inbrme Gjertn. ISTarcondam (74), at East Bay. 
India, Indo-China, Andamans. 

XXXIII. hTTCTAGIHE^. xxvi. 

88. Boerhaavia RE PENS Linn. Narcondam (75); Barren Island (40) ; 

common on rocks on the coast. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

89. PISONIA ACULEATA Linn. Narcoudam (76), not very plentiful. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

90. PisONiA ALBA Span. ISTarcondam (77), beach-forest, E. Bay. 
Laccadives, Cejlon ; Andamans, Malaya. 

91. PISONIA EXCELSA Bl. ISTarcondam (78), abundant, E. Bay. 
Andamans, Malaya. 

XXXIV. ARISTOLOCHIACE^. 

92. Aristolochia tagala Cham. & Schlecht. Narcondam (79). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya; ' China. 

XXXV. MYRISTICACE^. _, 

93. Mtristica glauca Bl. ISTarcondam (80). 

Indo-China, Andamans, Malaya. 

288 


75 


Flwa 0 /TTarcondana and Barren Island. 

XXXVI. ETJPHORBIACE^. xxvii. 

94. Bridelia tomentosa B1. Narcondam (81). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya, Australia, Claina. 

95. Actephila excelsa Muell.-Arg. {A. javensis Miq.) Jlarcondara 
(82) ; gregarious and plentiful, the commonest species in the island. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

96. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Barren Island (41), to the south 
of the lava, near inner base of outer cone. 

Africa ; India, Burma, Malaya ; China. 

97. Glochichon calocaepum Kurz. _ Harcondam (83), and Barren 
Island (42) ; common on rocks on the coast. 

Andamans and hTicohars. 

98. Flueggia microcarpa B1. Barren Island (43) ; gregarious and 
plentiful between the cones to the north of the lava. 

Afi’ica ; India, Indo-China, Malaya; Australia ; China. 

99. Breynba rhamnoidbs Muell.-Arg. Harcondam (84). 

India, Burma, Malaya ; China. 

100. Ctclostbmon macrophtlltjs B1. FTarcondam (85). 

India, Andamans, Malaya. 

101. Ctclostemon assamices Hook. f. Harcondam (86). 

Eastern Himalaya, Assam ; Andamans. 

102. Blachia andamanica Hook. f. Harcondam (87), Anchorage Bay. 
Andamans. 

103. Mallotus andamakicus Hook. f. Harcondam (88), gregarious and 
common, but less so than Actephila excelsa. 

Andamans. 

104. Macaranga Tanarius Muell.-Arg. Harcondam (89) : Barren Is¬ 
land (44). 

Andamans, Malaya. 

105. Gelonium biearium Roxb. Narcondam (90), plentiful on the 
coast; Barren Island (45). 

Andamans, Malaya. 

XXXVII. URTICACE^. xxviii. 

106. Trbma AMBOIXensis B1. Harcondam (91), common on rocky 
coasts and inland also; Barren Island (46), general, some stunted 
examples occur even on the bare inner cone. 

Eastern Himalaya, Indo-China, Andamans, Malaya. 

107. Ficus GiBBOSA Bl., var. cuspibieera King. Barren Island (47). 
India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

108. Ficus GLABERRIMA Bl. Harcondam (92); one of the tallest trees. 
Himalaya, Indo-China, Malaya. 


289 


76 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

109. Ficus Benjamina Linn. Narcondam (93) j seeds brought have 
germinated at Calcutta. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

110. Ficus eetusa Linn., var. nitida King (sp. Thunbg). Karcondam 
(94), and Barren Island (48) ; very common on both islands. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya; Australia ; New Caledonia ; China. 

111. Ficus nervosa Roth. Narcondam (95), at 1,800 feet elevation. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya ; China. 

112. Ficus Rumphii B1. Narcondam (96), and Barren Island (49) ; 
very plentiful. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

113. Ficus callosa Willd. Narcondam (97), beach-forest at East 
Bay ; a very tall tree. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

114. Ficus BRBViCUSPis Miq. Narcondam (98), very common ; Barren 
Island (60) ; this is one of those species in which many of the branchlets 
are hollow and a:fford homes for species of ants. 

Andamans, Malaya. 

115. Ficus HiSPiDA Linn., var. ttpica. Barren Island (51), in the valley 
between the cones, at the inner base of the outer cone. 

India; Indo-China, Malaya. 

var D^MONUM King (sp. Koenig.). Narcondam (99), and Barren 
Island (51) ; frequent. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

116. Ficus variegata B1. Barren Island (52) ; on the hill at the west 
end of southern part of outer cone, overlooking Landing-place Bay. 

Indo-China, Malaya. 

117. Antiaris toxicaeia Leschen. Narcondam (100), not common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

The leaves of the form present here exactly match those of Malayan specimens 
named A. rufa by Miquel. 

118. Artocarpus Lakoocha Roxb. Narcondam (101). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

119. B(ehmeria malabaeica Wedd. Narcondam (102); very plentiful. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

120. PiPTUEUS VELUTINUS Wedd. Narcondam (103), plentiful. 

Nicobars, Malaya; Polynesia. 

—. ORCHID ACE^. XXIX. 

121. Dendrobium sp. Barren Island (53), rather common on trees on 
inside of outer cone. 

290 


77 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

122. Pholidota imbricata Lindl. Barren Island (54), inside crater. 
India, Bui-ma, Malaya. 

XXXVIII. SCITAMINE^. —. 

123. Musa sapientum Linn. The Flayitain. Narcondam (104), a large 
grove behind the Coco-nut trees at Coco Bay. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics, cultivated. 

No doubt deliberately introduced for the benefit of possibly ship-wrecked 
mariners, though it is not quite clear who planted it; probably (see under Cocos 
nucifera) it has been introduced from the Andamans, and perhaps dates from 1866. 

XXXIX. DIOSCOREACE^. xxx. 

124. Dioscorea sativa Linn. Narcondam (105) Barren Island (55). 
India, Burma, Malaya ; Australia. 

125. Dioscorea glabra Roxh. Barren Island (56); common. 

India, Burma, Malaya. 

XL. LILIACEAE. xxxi. 

126. Drac^.na ANGUSTIFOLIA Roxb. Narcondam (106), Anchorage Bay. 
Indo-China, Malaya, Australia. 

127. Gloriosa superba Linn. Barren Island (57), E. coast near sea. 
Africaj India; Indo-China, Malaya. 

XLi. COMMELINACEiE. — . 

128. PoLLiA Aclisia Hassk. Narcondam (107), very abundant on 
slopes overlooking south end of Anchorage Bay. 

Eastern Himalaya, Indo-China, Malaya. 

XLii. PALME.^. XXXII. 

129. Cartota mitis Lour. (G. sololifera Wall.) Narcondam (108). 
Indo-China, Malaya. 

130. Cocos NUCIFERA Linn. Narcondam (109), many at Coco Bay, 
a few at Anchorage Bay, one, not yet bearing, at E. Bay; Barren Island 
(58), thirteen trees counted from the offing, behind the Pandanus fence 
at Anchorage Bay; none seen elsewhere. 

India; Malaya ; Polynesia; America. 

The introduction of this tree into these islands is a question of some interest. 
The tree at E. Bay, Narcondam, has no doubt been produced from a nut washed 
round from Coco Bay; in all likelihood the trees at Anchorage Bay have been 
derived from the same source. The trees at Coco Bay itself may have origi¬ 
nated from nuts brought from the Coco Group by a surface-current sweeping from 
the Sea of Bengal, through the Preparis Channels, from N.-E. to S.-W. across the 
Andaman Sea; but as they are associated, where they occur, with a grove of 
Musa sapientum (which must have been deliberately introduced), it is not unreason¬ 
able to suppose that the two species were introduced together. 


291 


78 


Flora 0 /Narcondam and Barren Island. 


The question is, when did they first appear ? Hume and Ball landed in 1873 
at the very spot where they are now so plentiful, yet no mention is made by either 
writer of their presence. As Ball speaks of some of the species observed at this 
Bay, and as Hume describes the Coco-nuts seen by him, shortly after, at the Cocos, 
it is hard to believe that the trees were there in 1873. Again, Mallet makes no 
reference to them in 1884; the maps accompanying his account indicate that he 
and Hobday landed at Anchorage Bay, and he may not therefore have seen the large 
grove at Coco Bay ; but those at the beach where he landed should have been 
evident to him. Mallet’s paper is however confined to the geology and topography 
of the island, and hardly alludes to its vegetation. But Hume, Ball, and Mallet are 
equally silent regarding the Coco-nuts on Barren Island which we know to have been 
present in 1866, for they were seen by the Andaman Deputation—whose report has 
been already referred to (p. 56)—behind a beach, to which they still seem confined. 
As these three writers failed to notice Coco-nuts in Barren Island, where we know 
they existed at the time of these visits, there is no reason why Coco-nuts should not 
have been present then in Narcondam also. The Andaman Deputation in their 
Report (Proc. As. Soc., Beagf., 1866, 215)., say : “We brought fi'om Port Blair with 
“ us a number of Cocoa-nuts, Plantain trees, and Pine-apple cuttings, and these 
“ we planted on the ground from which the grass had been cut, in hopes that 
“they might be of use to some future visitors.”* We have seen, in connection 
with some of the species in this list, that the same deputation visited Narcondam 
also, though it did not report on that island j nothing therefore is. more pi'obablo 
than that the deputation did there what it had done on Barren Island, and that 
to its members belongs the credit of having introduced, at least, the Plantains. But 
the Coco-nut trees are so much more numerous, and so much larger on Narcondam 
than on Barren Island, that one finds it difiicult to think they only date from 1866. 
It is unfortunate that the deputation did not find it necessary to report on Narcondam 
as well as on Barren Island ; had they done so, there is little doubt the report would 
have mentioned any Coco-nuts that were present. However, even if the Coco-nut 
trees were already there in 1866, the writer is inclined to think that their origin 
must still be due to introduction by some previous visitor. 

The Coco-nuts on Barren Island may be supposed to have originated from nuts 
swept up by a strong surface-current that fiows from the south-west, and that 
therefore would bring drift from the Nicobars where Coco-nuts are plentiful. But 
it is more likely that the trees have been introduced, though involuntarily, by man. 
For though there is reason to believe that no one has ever landed at this particular 
beach, this bay affords the only safe anchorage in the island, and it is therefore more 
probable that these trees have sprung from nuts that have fallen overboard from 

* There was no trace of any of these in the locality indicated during the 
writer’s visit, a circumstance not surprising; because, in the first place, the situation 
is not over-suitable for such species, and, besides, goats have been since then in¬ 
troduced into the island ! It may be mentioned that no one at Port Blair in 1891 
knew of the existence of Coco-nuts in Narcondam, and the writer consequently took 
a number with him in order to plant them, only to find the act unnecessary. And, 
bearing in mind the state of affairs in Great Coco {Journ. As. Soc., Beng., lx, pt. 2, 
315), he also took fruits of Carica Papaya for the same purpose. Should, therefore, 
subsequent visitors find this species established in the island, they are hereby re¬ 
lieved of the necessity of inventing an hypothesis to explain the circumstance. 

292 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 79 

some craft lying off this beach, than that they have been brought by the sea from 
the Nicobars, or that they have been deliberately introduced by man. 

XLiii. PANDAJSTACEJi:. xxxiii. 

131. Paxdanus ODORATissiMus Linn. f. ISTarcondam (110), common at 
Coco Bay and elsewhere ; Barren Island (59), at Anchorage Bay. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

XLiv. AROIDE^. —. 

132. Amorphophallus (Candarum) rex Prain, sp. nov. inhere magno 
depresso-glohoso ; cataphyllis 4, ohlongo-lanceolatis ; folii petiole parum 
asperate vix maculate, lamina trisecta segmentis irregnlariter dichotomis 
iterumqne pinnatisectis, pinnnlis (imis nonnnnqnam exceptis) ad costulas 
decnrrentibus, ovato-ohlongis, candato-acnminatis, nervis supra impressis, 
suhtus prominentibns, sinubus angustis ; pedunculo crasso florifero brevi, 
fi’uctigero elongate; spatha juniore cataphyllis obtecta, matura tubo 
infundibulari crasso in laminam late campanulatam margine tandem 
reflexa nndnlato-plicatam postice acntninatam expanse ; spadice spatha 
subdnplo longiore, erecto, stricto, crasso; inflorescentiis tnbo spatlnn 
subinclnsis, foeminea snrsnm parum angustata quam masculnm parnm 
obconicam dimidio longiore, appendice crassa conico-pyramidali inflore¬ 
scentiis dimidio longiore et, saltern prope basin, qnam eas triple latiore. 
Narcondam (111), very common. 

Tuhere diam. 9-18-poll.; cataphyllis spiraliter dispositis, imo exteriore 3 poll., 
altero 9 poll., tertio 12 poll, summo interiore 19 poll, longis, omnibus 2 poll, latis, 
pallide viridibus maculis olivaceis, demumtamen subconcoloribus luteis ; petiole 2 5- 
6-pedali basi ipsa d'S poll, crasso, sursum spatio brevi ita incrassato ut loco 
supra solum 4 poll, alto crassitudinis 5-pollicaris, delude paullatim se coartante et 
apud trifurcationem diam. 3-5 poll, tantum, pallide viridi, maculis olivaceis, demum 
subconcolore olivaceo; lamina diam. 5'5-ped., supra olivacea subtus prasina, segmen¬ 
tis singulis 36 poll, longis, pinnnlis ultimis 8-10 poll, longis, his 3-3-25 poll, latis ; 
pedunculo florifero brevi, 2-5 poll, tantum longo, fructigero ad 30 poll, elongate, 
l'5-2 poll, crasso, juniore pallide viridi mature purpurascente; spatha a latere 
16 poll., a basi ad apicem versus 19 poll, longa, infra substantiae carnosae sursum 
tenuescente, extus concolore pallide viridi, intus ad basin verruculosam lutea, 
supra pallide viridi ibi tamen margine excepto cito flavescente ; spadice tota 21-5 
poll, longa, parte feeminea 4 5 poll, longa, basi 2'25 poll, apice 1‘75 poll, crassa, 
(fructigera 7 poll, longa et 3-5 poll, crassa) ex ovariis globosis 0-2 poll. diam. 
viridibus, 2-(rarissime 3-jlocularibus, sessilibiis, subcontiguis, in stylos 0-3 poll, 
longos, luteos contractis, stigmatibus plicatim 2-3-lobis, loculis 1-o-vulatis, ovulis 
semianatropis decurvis, funiculo elongate angulo interiore parum supi-a basin 
affixis, in ala placentali circa basin funiculo exoriente et loculum fere totum 
complente innixis eademque amplexis ; parte masctila 3 poll, longa, basi 1 75 poll., 
apice 2'5 poll, crassa, e floribus 4-5-antheris spiraliter dispositis, antheris singulis 
subsessilibus connective sursum parum producto, ellipsoideis sursum aiigustatis 
apice I'imis luuulatis 2-porosis ; appendice 14 poll, longa, hac basi 6 poll, crassa, 

293 


80 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

post anthesiii caduoa, spongiosa, ragosa, valleciilosa, lutoa et brunneo-macalata : 
bacca 1—2-sperma, 0'75 poll, longa, hao 0'25-0'35 poll, lata, ovata, versus apicem 
angustata, carnosa, lutea; seminihus pendulis ovatis, triente basilar! e funiculo 
incrassato spongiosis, ceterum embryone corneo semini subconformi oartilageneis. 

This species resembles the Java form, or a variety, of Amorphophallus canvpan- 
ulatus [A. campanulatus Blume, Eumphia, i, 139. t. 32, 33, as opposed to Arum cam- 
panulatum, Eoxb , Hort. Beng., 66) in the conic-pyramidal shape of the appendix, but 
differs in other respects, more particularly in the leaf. It agrees with A. virosus 
Brown {Bot. Mag., 6978) in having the male and female inflorescence of about 
equal length, but in other respects is very distinct, for A. virosus has the dense 
flowered turbinate male inflorescence, and the short oblong appendix character- 
Stic of Eoxburgh’s Arum campanulatum of which it is probably only a form. The 
following brief diagnosis f may assist in indicating how very distinct the present 
plant is from the forms hitherto known :— 

Petiole hardly verrucose ; male flowers disposed spirally 
on an inflorescence not wider than the female : yellow 
pyramidal appendix (twice as long as broad, and) one- 
half longer than the combined inflorescences : (male and 
female inflorescences of equal length; spathe green con- 

colorous) . A. rex 

Petiole very verrucose; male flowers disposed spirally on an 
inflorescence much wider than the female : puriolish- 
brown appendix not so long as the combined inflore¬ 
scences : — 

Male and female inflorescences of equal length,spathe 
green suffused with purple, externally white spotted 
(oblong appendix not longer than broad) . A. virosus. 

Male inflorescence much shorter than the female, spathe 
pm’ple ooncolorous. A. campanulatus. 

Oblong appendix, not longer than broad . Arum campanulatum 

Eoxb. (India). 

Pyramidal appendix twice as long as broad Amorphophallus campan¬ 
ulatus Bl. (Java).J 

+ In connection with this, it may be mentioned that fhe Amorphophallus from the 
Coco Group, mentioned (Journ. As. 8oc., Beng., lx, 2, 333) as related to A. hulhifer and 
A. tuberculiger, has since flowered at Calcutta, and has proved, as was then anticipated, 
to be a very distinct species. As the authors of the other species, have indicated by 
the specific name the tubercle-bearing habit of the species, the writer proposes for 
this one the name ‘ Amorphophallus oncophtllus ’ Brain. The diagnosis between 
it and the two species for which it might be mistaken, is as follows:— 

Stigma sessile, spathe unconstricted, appendix equal in length 


to the combined inflorescences :— 

Female inflorescence shorter than the male . A. tuberculiger. 

Female inflorescence as long as the male .. A. bulbifer. 

Style distinct, spathe constricted slightly opposite the male 
inflorescence, appendix twice as long as the combined in- 
floi’oscences ... A. oncophyllus. 


J As this paper has been passing through the press, the writer has learned 
from Sir Joseph Hooker, that he identifies A. rex with Blame’s Java A. campanidatus. 

294 









81 


Flora of l^arcondam and Barren Island. 

133. PoTHOS SCANDEKS Linn. Narcondam (112), entrees; common. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

xLV. CYPERACE^. xxxiv. 

134. Ctperus PENNATUS Lamk. Rarcondam (113) ; Barren Island (60). 
Africa, India, Indo-Cliina, Malaya. 

135. Eimbristtlis DiPHYLLA Vakl. Barren Island (61). 

America ; Afidca ; India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; China. 

136. Fimbristtlis PERRUGiNEA Yahl. Rarcondam (114), rocks on coast; 
Barren Island (62), tussocks outside inner cone, also inside crater. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

XLvi. GRAMUSTE^. xxxv. 

137. Oplismbnus Burmanni Roem. & Scbult. Barren Island (63). 
India, Indo-China, Malaya ; China, Japan. 

138. Thtsanol^na ACARiEERA Rees. Rarcondam (115) coasts. 

India, Indo-China; Malaya. 

139. PoGONATHERUM SACCHAROiDEUM Beauv. Barren Island (64); common. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya ; China. 

This species is very abundant on the rocky slopes forming the inner side of the 
outer cone; it is one of the plants collected by the Deputation of 1866 ; it was also 
collected in 1846 by Kamphovener, botanist on the Danish Frigate “ Galatea,” whose 
visit is commemorated by the name ‘ Galatea ’ having been marked on the large block 
on the crater. Kamphovener’s specimens are in the Herbarium at Copenhagen. 

140. Irch^mum muticum Retz. Barren Island (65) ; common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; Western Polynesia. 

Usually a coast species, this here extends inland and fills the valley between the 
cones, covering all the bottom of this except the lava streams. 

—. LYCOPODIRE^. xxxTi. 

141. Ltcopobiem cernuum Linn. Barren Island, (66), interior of crater. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

142. PsiLOTUM TRIQUETRUM Sw. Barren Island (67), interior of crater. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

XLvii. FILICES. XXXVII. 

143. Davallia solida Sw. Rarcondam (116), on trees in beach-forest. 
Andamans, Malaya, Polynesia ; Australia. 

144. Davallia speluxc^ Bak. Rarcondam (117), common. 

Africa; India, Indo-China, Malaya; Australia; Polynesia. 

145. Adiantum lunulatum Burm. Barren Island (68), common. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

146. Trichomanes pyxidiperum Linn. Rarcondam, (118), at 2330 feet. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 


295 


82 


Flora q/'Narcondam and Barren Island. 


147. CnEiLANTHES TENUiEOLiA Sw. Barren Island (69), dwarf speci¬ 
mens, plentiful within the crater. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; Polynesia ; China. 

148. Onychium auratum Kaulf. Barren Island (70), occasional. 
Himalayas, Indo-China, Malaya ; China. 

149. Pteris LONGIFOLIA Linn. Barren Island (71), a few plants. 
Cosmopolitan in tropical and sub-tropical countries. 

150. Pteris biatjrita Linn. Barren Island (72), occasional. 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

151. Asplenium Nidus Linn. Narcondam (119), on trees, rather 
common. 

Mascarene Islands ; India, Indo-China, Malaya; Polynesia. 

162. Asplenium palcatum Lamk., var. urophtllum Bak. Narcondam 
(120), very common on stony hill-sides ; Barren Island (73). 

Africa; India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia; Polynesia. 

153. Nbphrodium tbrminans J. Sm. Narcondam (I2I), common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia; Polynesia ; China. 

154. Nephrolbpis tubbrosa Presl. Barren Island (74). 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

155. Polypodium irioides Lamk. Narcondam (122), at 1800 feet. 
Africa, India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia ; Polynesia. 

166. Polypodium ADNASCENS Sw. Narcondam (123); Barren Island (75). 
Africa, India, Indo-China, Malaya; Polynesia. 

157. Polypodium quercieolium Linn. Narcondam (124); Barren Is¬ 
land (76). 

India, Indo-China, Malaya ; Australia. 

158. Acrostichum appendiculatum Willd., var. setosa Bak. Narcon¬ 
dam (125), common. 

India, Indo-China, Malaya. 

159. Acrostichum costatum Wall., var. deltigera. Narcondam (126) ; 
exactly = Wallich’s Meniscium deltigerum. 

E. Himalayas ; Indo-China, Malaya. 

160. Acrostichum auredm Linn. Narcondam (127); and Barren Is¬ 
land (77) ; common on rocks on the coast. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics in salt marshes. 

161. Acrostichum scandens J. Sm. Barren Island (78), near sea. 
India, Indo-China, Malaya; Australia ; Polynesia. 

slviii. MUSCI. xxsviii. 

162. Neckeea rugulosa Mitt.* Narcondam (128), at 2330 feet. 
Ceylon. 

* Examined, and kindly named for the writer by Dr. Brotlierus, Helsing fors. 

296 


Flora ofNai’ccndam and Barren Island. 


83 


163. Bryum coeonatum Schwcegr. Narcondam (129); Barren Island 
(79). Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

XLTX. LICHENES. xxxix. 

161. CoLLEMA NIGRBSCBNS Achar. Narcondam (130), rather coinmon ; 
Barren Island (80), plentiful. 

Cosmopolitan. 


L. FUNGI.* XL. 

165. POLYPORUS AUSTRALIS Fries. Narcondam (131) ; Barren Island (81). 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

166. PoLYPORUS XANTHOPUS Fries. Narcoiidam (132). 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

167. Lbnzites PLATYPHYLLUS Cooke, GrewZZea xiii. 1. Narcondam (132). 
Malay Peninsula. 

168. Dedaelea griercina Fries. Narcondam (134) ; Barren Island (82). 
Cosmopolitan. 

169. Peniophoea papyrina Mont. Narcondam (135) ; Barren Island (83). 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

170. Hirneola polytricha Mont. Narcondam (136); Barren Island (84). 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

171. Thelbphora incrustans Pers. Narcondam (137); Barren Island 
(85), 

Cosmopolitan. 

172. Rhytisma, sp. Narcondam (138) ; Barren Island (86); on leaves 
of Ficus hrevicuspis. 

Andamans. 

ALG^. XLi. 

173. Calothrix pulvikata Ag. Barren Island (87) ; on stones in 
the hot spring on the beach at Landing-place Cove. 

Cosmopolitan. 

174. Calothrix tasmanica Kg. Barren Island (88) ; on rocks in bed 
of torrent on inside of outer cone to the south of the lava. 

Indo-China, Malaya; Australia. 

§§§ Nature and Origin op the Flora. 

The list includes 174 species, of which 138 occur in Narcondam 
and 88 in Barren Island ; 86, or 62^°/^, of the Narcondam plants are 
absent from Barren Island, while 36, or 41%, of the Bari’en Island 
species do not occur in Narcondam; only 52 species—making 37f°/o of 

* Examined, and kindly named for the writer by Mr. G. Massee. 

297 


84 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 


tlie Narcondam, 59°/o of tlie Barren Island flora—are common to the 
two islands. Of the genera, 111 occur in Narcondam and 75 in Barren 
Island, but only 48,—43|-% of the Narcondam ones, 64'’/o of those in 
Barren Island—are found in both places. Eleven natural orders present 
in Narcondam are unrepresented in Barren Island; five present in 
Barren Island are not found in Narcondam. 

As regards Cryptogams, the two floras seem very similar, each 
having the same total number; the natural orders, however, indicate 
greater diversity of character among Barren Island than among Narcon¬ 
dam Cryptogams. There are two Lycopodinece, and two Algce, not re¬ 
presented in Narcondam ; on the other hand, in Narcondam, at the top 
of the hill are a Trichonianes and a Neckera, absent from Barren Island. 
Of the thirteen ferns on Narcondam and 12 on Barren Island, 5 only are 
common to the two places ; the Narcondam ferns belong to 6 genera, the 
Barren Island ones represent 8 genera. In Narcondam, one of the 
features of the vegetation is the presence of large beds of ferns; in 
Barren Island, ferns are scarce. 

All the Cryptogams are herbaceous, and may all have their presence 
credited to wind-agency; Acrostic-hum aureum, however, in both islands, 
and dcrostichum scandens in Barren Island, grow only near the sea ; both 
are denizens of mud-flats in the Sunderbuns, the Andamans and through¬ 
out Malaya and possibly therefore are sea-introduced. 

Of the 46 natural orders of Phanerogams in Narcondam, 23 are re¬ 
presented by one species, 12 by two species, 3 by three species, and .3 
by four species each ; the only orders represented by more than four 
species, are Compositce and Convolvulacece, each 6 sp. ; Euphorhiacece, 10 
sp. ; Leguminosoe, 12 sp. and UtricacecB, 13 sp. In the 35 natural orders 
in Barren Island we find that 21 are represented by one species, 8 by 
two species, and 2 by three species ; the only orders represented by 
more than three species are Leguminosoe, Bubiacece and EupTiorhiaceat, 

5 sp. each, and Urticacece, 7 sp. Urticacece is thus in both islands the 
leading natural order ; this hegemony is due to the facilities that fruits 
of the order offer for introduction by frugivorous birds. 

Of the 115 Narcondam Phanerogams, 33 are trees, 31 are shrubs, 
37 are climbing species—woody climbers 16, herbaceous climbers 21 ; 
only 5 climbers being armed—and 14 are herbs. Of the 65 Barren 
Island species, 15 are trees, 17 are shrubs, 16 are climbers—woody 6, 
herbaceous 10; only 3 armed—and 17 are kerbs. There are roughly 
speaking twice as many trees, shrubs and climbers in Narcondam as 
in Barren Island; the number of herbaceous species in the latter island 
is, however, slightly in excess of the nnmber in the former. Of the 
herbaceous Phanerogams seven species are common to both islands ; all 
298 


Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 


85 


are plants that may have been introduced by the sea. Of inland 
herbaceous species which may have been introduced by fruit-eating or 
marsh birds, or by the wind, the islands do not have one in common. 

In Harcondam there are four Gompositce most probably introduced 
by wind ; a grass, Thsyanolcena, may conceivably have been introduced in 
the same way. The two remaining herbs are the Amorphophallus v^hich, 
even if in this island it has developed into a distinct form, must have 
originally been introduced by some fruit-eating bird, and the Pollia, 
which most probably has been introduced by the same agency. 

In Barren Island, the wind-introduced species are two orchids and 
one grass, Pogonatherum; IscTicemum muticuni has probably been intro¬ 
duced by the sea. The others have been introduced by birds; Physalis 
and Mitreola probably by fruit-eating birds ; Oldenlandia, Vandellia and 
Oplismenus by birds to whose feet or feathers seeds have clung. Except 
Pogonatherum, Ischcemum and Mitreola, the Barren Island herbs are 
scarce. 

The paucity of armed climbers in both islands is striking. The 
proportion of climbers to erect species is considerably higher in ISTarcon- 
dam, where they form one-third of the whole Phanerogamic flora, than 
in Barren Island, where they form only one-fourth, and partly in con¬ 
sequence of this, the jungle in Barren Island is opener than in Nar- 
condam. Of the thirty-seven climbers in ISTarcondam, twelve have 
undoubtedly been introduced by fruit-eating birds, while one has most 
probably been introduced by its fruits having stuck to the feathers of 
some bird ; fourteen have been introduced by the sea; six by winds. 
Of the remaining four species, which are more doubtful, two may be 
safely assumed to be here sea-introduced species also; one may be put 
down to the agency of birds, and only one species, the Dioscorea, is 
quite doubtful; perhaps the sea is on the whole the most likely agency. 

Similarly, of the sixteen climbers on Barren Island, five are clearly 
species introduced by fruit-eating birds ; to these a sixth probably 
should be added. Pour are species cei’tainly sea-introduced ; to these 
another should probably, and two more should perhaps be added ; of 
wind-introduced species there are three. 

Very few of these species are common to both islands, only nine, 
or about half the Barren Island and one-fourth of the Harcondam 
climbers being so ; of these four are again sea-shore species, and the 
Pioscorea found in both islands may be a fifth of the sea-introduced 
class. Two, the Hoyas, are wind-introductions ; one, Capparis sepiaria, is 
certainly; another, the Abrus, is probably, a bird-introduced species. 

Of the thirty-one E'arcondam shrubs, one has been intro¬ 

duced by man ; on the other hand not a single shrub owes its presence 

299 


86 Flora of Narcondam and Barren Island. 

to the agency of wind. As many as seventeen are nnequivocally bird- 
introduced species ; and ten are unequivocally sea-introduced species ; 
the remaining three, -which are all capsular-fruited Fuphorhiacece 
(Actephila, Macaranga and Mallotus), though not unequivocally sea-in¬ 
troduced, are in all probability species of this class. 

Of the seventeen Barren Island shrubs, seven are undoubtedly bird- 
introduced species ; nine are sea-introduced species ; one species, JDodoncea. 
is, though somewhat equivocally, to be looked upon as wind-introduced. 

There is much greater conformity between the floras as regards this 
class; thirteen of the Barren Island shrubs occur also in ISTarcondam, 
only four being peculiar ; all but one of the sea-shore, and all but two 
of the bird-introduced shrubs in Barren Island occur in Narcondam also. 

The trees in the two islands have last to be considered. Of the 
thirty-three in JS^arcondam twenty-one, or more than three-fifths, have 
been introduced by birds; two from their fruits having been attached 
to the feet or feathers, the others, by fruit-eating birds : ten may have 
been sea-introdiiced ; for seven this mode of introduction is undoubted, 
as regards Garyota it is rather equivocal, and the Coco-nut may have 
been deliberately introduced; two species are wind-introduced. 

Of the fifteen Barren Island trees, nine are bird-introduced species ; 
five are sea-introduced ; one has been introduced by wind. 

Here again great conformity between the floras is observable; of 
the fifteen Barren Island trees, ten occur in Harcondam: these include 
all the bird-introduced ones except four, and all but one of the sea-intro¬ 
duced species ; one wind-introduced species is common to the two islands. 

Among herbaceous species, where the equality of numbers promised 
most agreement, there is therefore greater diversity between the two 
floras than among the others. 

Of the 75 species of Phanerogams peculiar to Narcondam, 22 have 
been introduced by the sea, 42 by birds, and 10 by winds; one species 
( Mttsa) has been introduced by man. Of the 25 species peculiar to 
Barren Island, on the other hand 5 have been introduced by the sea, 15 
by birds, 5 by winds. Of the 40 Phanerogams common to the two 
islands ; 24 are sea-introduced, 13 are bird-introduced, 3 wind-introduced. 
In the common element of the two floras, the sea-introduced species 
form the dominant class, being nearly double the bird-introduced species 
and six times as numerous as the wind-introduced ones. In the special 
elements, on the other hand, the bird-introduced species form in both 
instances the dominant class ; in Harcondam they are nearly twice as 
numerous as the sea-introduced and four times as numerous as the wind- 
introduced species ; in Barren Island, they are three times as numerous 
as either of these kinds. 


300 


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CONTENTS. 


Introduction. 

I he Laccadive Archipelago; bibliography; Lt. Wood’s account 
of Anderut ; Lt. Moresby’s chart ; Sir Wm. Robinson’s description 
of the British Islands; Mr. Hume’s account of the Archipelago ; visits 
by the Investigatof^’; Cherbaniani reef; Cheriapani reef; Bitrapar ; 
Pirmalpar ; Akati; Chitlac ; Kiltan ; Kadamum ; Ameni; Piti sandbank; 
Korati; Anderut; Kalpeni; Minikoi; lists of the islands ... 1-26 


Systematic List of Plants. 

Source and nature of the list; authors quoted ; list ... 27_77. 

Characteristic Features of the Flora. 

Systematic character; habit of the species ; origin and distribution of 

.77-83. 



' -.r 








BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES, being NATURAL 
HISTORY NOTES FROM H. M. I. M. SURVEY 
STEAMER INViJSTIGATOB;* Commander 
R. F. HOSKYN, R.N., COMMANDING. 

Series II., No. 5. By D. Peain. 

Introduction. 

The Laccadive Archipelago is situated at the south-eastern 
angle of the Arabian Sea, between Lat. 10° and 14° N. and Lon. 
71° 40' and 74° E., and is composed of 16 or 17 small coral islands, 
the most easterly of which lies 120 miles to the westward of the 
Malabar Coast, while the most southerly is about the same distance 
to the north of the Maidive Archipelago. Between the Laccadive 
and the Maidive Archipelagos lies the island of Minikoi in Lat. 8°30' 
N., and Lon. 72° 40' E. This island is sometimes spoken of as being 
one of the Maldives, owing to the fact of its being rather nearer to 
that Archipelago than to the Laccadives, and because its population 
is Maidive in language and in manners j usually, however, it is 
treated, as it will be in this paper, as a Laccadive Island, because its 
political allegiance has always, within historical times, been with the 
latter group. In reality, however, it cannot be precisely looked on 
as a member of either group, though being one of the atoll-crowned 
submarine peaks characteristic of the two archipelagos, it is clearly 
a link in the chain to which both belong. It was at one time 
supposed that the atolls of this chain were situated on a bank 
separated from the nearest mainland (the coast of Malabar) by 
an ocean trough.* This is now found to be incorrect, and the 
islands form in reality " a chain of peaks rising from a bed of 1,100 
“fathoms, or are in themselves 6,600 feet above the bottom, 
“ a height somewhat similar to that of the Western Ghats in those 

“ latitudes.”! 

* Hume, “ Btray Feathers,” vol. iv., p. 459. 

t Carpenter, ” AJministration Reports of the Marine Survey of India,” year 
1887-8S, p. 7 ; year 1888 89, p. 0. 


SOI 



2 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892 . 


The chief references to the Laccadive Archipelago are enume¬ 
rated below:— 

W. Hamilton. —Article “Laccadives/* in East India Gazetteer 
[1815] : a very brief notice of the group. 

J. Wood. —Extract from Lieut. Wood's Private Journal regard¬ 
ing the Lakeradeevh Archipelago, in Journ. of the Roy. Oeogr. 8oc., 
vol. vi. [1836] : contains a full account of Anderut, and gives in¬ 
formation concerning the other members of the group obtained 
from enquiries made by Lieut. Wood when in Anderut. 

W. Robinson. —Description of the Laccadive Islands, in Madras 
Journ. of Literature and Science, n. s., vol. xiv. [1847]: contains 
full accounts of the British Islands of the Archipelago, and is pre¬ 
ceded by an interesting and valuable historical preface, unfortunately 
unsigned, drawn up by a member of the Madras Society’s Editorial 
Committee. 

A. O. Hume. —The Laccadives and the West Coast, in Stray 
Feathers, vol. iv., [1876]: an excellent account of the reefs and 
islands visited by Mr, Hume. 

W. W. Hunter.— Article “ Laccadives,” in Imp. Gazetteer of 
India, ed. ii., vol. viii. [1886] : a somewhat inexact digest of pre¬ 
vious notices based chiefly, however, on that by Mr. (afterwards 
Sir William) Robinson. 

Administration Reports of the Marine Survey of India, 1887-8, 
1888-9, 1889-90, 1890-1, 1891-2, Topographical and hydrographical 
notices by Commander Carpenter, R. N., and Commander 
Hoskyn, R. N., with biological notices by Surg. Alcock, 

I.M.S. 

J. Shortt. —Monograph of the Cocoanut Palm [1888] : describes 
(p. 16) the process of coir-manufacture in the Laccadives. 

G. Watt.— Article “Cocos nucifera,” in Diet. Econ. Prod, of 
India, vol, ii. [1889] : describes the Laccadive coco-nut and coir 
trade. 

D. Prain.— A list of Laccadive Plants, in Sc. Mem. by Medical 
Officers of the Amy of India, part v. [1890] ; E. Roth, in Engler, 
Bot. Jahrb., vol. xii. [1890] ; W. B. Hemsloy, in Nature, 
vol. xlii. [1890]. 

302 


BOTANY OF THE LAQ0ADIVE8. 


8 


On stndying a chart of the Archipelago we find that the atolls 
are arranged in three lines, as if there were three chains of peaks; 
a western rather irregular chain, corresponding roughly to the meri¬ 
dian of Lon. 72° B., containing from north to south the reefs or 
islands of Cherbaniani, Cheriapani, Bitrapar, Pirmalpar, Akati, and 
Sahelipar, with, attho extreme north, the sunken bank of Koradivh ; 
a central, corresponding roughly to the meridian of Lon. 72° 45' E., 
containing from north to south the islands of Chitlac, Kiltan, 
Kadamum, Amfoi and Korati with the Piti sandbank between the 
two latter, and with, at the extreme north, the sunken Bassas de Pedro 
bank; and an eastern, corresponding to Lon. 78° 40' E., containing 
the islands of Anderut and Kalpeni, with, to the north-east of these, 
the sunken Elikalpeni bank ; Minikoi, it will be seen, corresponds 
as to position with the central chain of peaks. The parallel of 
Lat. 11° N. conveniently separates the Archipelago into two groups; 
the northern, containing the inhabited islands of Chitlac, Kiltan 
Kadamum, and Ameni with the uninhabited island of Bitra and the 
open reefs of Pirmalpar, Cheriapani and Cherbaniani, which are 
attached to the administrative district of South Kanara, and thus 
owe direct allegiance to British India ; and the southern, contain¬ 
ing the inhabited islands of Minikoi, Kalpeni, Anderut, Korati and 
Akati, with the three uninhabited islands of Suheli (on the Suhelipar 
reef), and Bangaro and Tangaro (on the reef on which Akati is 
situated), which belong to the Bibi of Cannanore, and thus only 
indirectly acknowledge British suzerainty.* It will be observed 
that only one of the atolls of the western chain—that on which 
Akati stands—has an inhabited island, whereas of the other two the 
only one without an inhabited island is the Piti sandbank, which, 
however, is of a somewhat different nature from the other atolls men¬ 
tioned, being in reality a sunken bank of the same type as Koradivh 
and Elikalpeni. 


* Since, however, the people of Minikoi do thug acknowledge themselves Indian 
snbiects, and since, except for the accident of population, the island has no greater 
claim to be considered a member of the Maidive than of the Laccadive group, it is 
better to deal with Minikoi along with the Laccadives, which are patently Indian 
islands, than along with the Maldives, which acknowledge the suzerainty of 
Ceylon. 


303 



4 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BISTORT S0CLET7, 1892. 


The earliest topographical account of any of the islands is a 
description of the Oannanore island of Anderut* * * § by Lieut. Wood, 
who visited it in December, 1834, and who, from enquiries 
made in this one, drew up a table in which the names of all the 
islands, with their condition as to population and vegetation, are 
shown. A chart of the group had, however, already been prepared 
from a survey by Lieut. Moresby in 1828.t The group was more 
fully described by Mr. (afterwards Sir William) Robinson, of the 
Madras Civil Service, who in 1844 and 1845 visited the inhabited 
islands directly under British rule, and made enquiries of the people 
of Ameni, Kadamum, Kiltan, and Chitlac regarding the condition of 
Bitrapar and of the inhabited islands belonging to the Cannanore 
Raj. Mr. Robinson^s account J had prefixed to it by the Editorial 
Committee of the Madras Literary Society an admirable digest of 
the history of the islands down to 1845, and this pi’eface, with the 
paper that follows it, has been made the basis of the official account 
of the group.§ From the time of Mr. Robinson’s visit till 1876 


* Extract from Lient. Wood’s private Journal regarding the Lakeradeevh Archi¬ 
pelago; “ Journ. of the Roy. Geogr. Soc.,” vol. vi., p. 29-33 (1830). 

t A reduced reproduction of this chart is given in “ Madr. Journ. of Lit. and Sc.,*’ 
vol. xiv., plate 16 (1847). 

“ Description of the Laccadive Islands,” by W. Robinson, Esq., of the Civil 
Service ; “ Madras Journ. of Lit. and Science,” vol. xiv., pp. 5-46 (1847). 

§ “ Imperial Gazetteer of India,” ed. ii., vol. viii., pp. 392-396 (1886). Much of this 
article is a paraphrase of Mr. Robinson’s account, many sentences being taken 
verbatim, though without acknowledgment, from the Madras Journal. The compiler 
accredits to Mr. Robinson one passage in the paragraph on population ; this passage 
though enclosed within quotation commas, differs rather more than many of the 
unacknowledged sentences. The paper by Mr. Robinson being essentially “ official,” 
the writer of the Gazetteer may not have been technically bound to acknowledge the 
source of his information; this can hardly, however, apply to the editorial preface, 
which is appropriated without remark. In doing so the “ Gazetteer ” somewhat 
inexactly speaks of Kalp^ni as the “ ‘ Kaluftee ' of Ibn Batuta,” although the writer 
of the paraphrased digest has been careful to say that “ no distinct mention of the 
Laccadives occurs in Ibn Batuta” (“ Madras Journ.,” xiv. 2), and as carefully indicates 
that the passage in which Kaluftee is given as the name of one of the principal 
inhabited Laccadive Islands occurs in the Tohfat-al-MujaMdin (“Madras Journ.,” xiv.3) 
The identification of Kaluftee with Kalp^ni is altogether arbitrary; it is quite as 
likely that Korati is intended. 

204 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


o 


no account of the islands had been published, though in 1873 
they were visited by Dr. Shortt.* * * § Mr. Hume in 1875 paid a visit to 
the Archipelago, his object being mainly an ornithological survey, 
but with characteristic energy he made a botanical collection in some 
of the islands visited by him, and refers to the species that he col¬ 
lected or observed in his account of this visit.t A series of scientific 
visits have recently been paid to this group by H. M. I. M. Inves¬ 
tigator. In October, 1887, Chitlac was visited, but no botanical col¬ 
lecting was done. J Again in May, 1889, Anderut and Kiltan were 
visited, and collections of botanical specimens were made by Dr. 
Alcock, Surgeon-Naturalist to the Marine Survey ;§ these collections 
were described in a preliminary notice of the Flora of the group by 
the writer.II In November, 1889, the Investigator visited Kal- 
peni^ and Dr. Alcock again made a collection of the plants. Finally, 
in November and December, 1891, the vessel re-visited Kiltan, 
and visited Kadaraum and Bitrapar, whence Mr. Hume had already 
sent specimens, as well as Akati and Minikoi, two islands from which 
specimens had not previously been obtained.** During these 1891 
visits. Dr. Alcock and his assistant, Mr. Fleming, Apothecary on the 
Investigator, collected most assiduously the plants that were met 
with, Mr. Fleming at the same time preparing a list of the species 
under cultivation in the four inhabited islands visited. 

All the islands of the group are typical coral-islands, situated on 
atoll-rings, of which each forms but a small portion, generally on 
the eastern or leeward aspect of their respective reefs; Anderut, 
however, is situated on the windward side, the reef being to 

* Shortt; Monograph of the Cocoanut Palm; or, Cocos nucifera, p. 16 (Madras, 
1888). 

t Hume, “ The Laccadives and the West Coast”; “ Stray Feathers,” vol. iv., pp. 413, 
460 (1876). 

J Carpenter, ‘‘.Administration Report of the Marine Survey of India,” year 
1887-88, p. 7. 

§ Alcock in Hoskyn, “Administration Report of the Marine Survey of India,” year 
1889-90, p. 13. 

II Prain, “ A List of Laccadive Plants”; “ Scientific Mem. by Medical Officers of the 
Army of India,” pt. v., pp. 47-70 (1889). 

^ Hoskyn, “ Administration Report of the Marine Survey of India,” 1889-90, p. 5, 
Gunn, ‘‘ Administration Report of the Marine Survey of India,” 1891-92, p. 3. 

* 305 



0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


leeward instead of to windward*, while Akati and its two little 
satellite islands, Bangaro and Tangaro, are inside a huge lagoon, 
formed by a separate barrier-reef.f Three of the atolls are 
mere open-reefs. The first of these is the Cherbaniani (called 
also the Beliapani) reef, situated at the extreme north-west 
corner of the Archipelago in Lon. 71® 55' B. and Lat. 12® 20' N., 
minutely described by Mr. Hume? as a long oval atoll, 6 miles in 
length by 2| miles across, the reef consisting of an almost unbroken 
line about 200 yards in width, just submerged at high-tide and more 
or less dry at low-water, with two narrow shallow channels through it 
on the eastern and one on the western side; in three places, at 
the extreme north, the extreme south, and about the middle of the 
eastern side are piled-up masses of coral debris forming islets even 
at high-water. There is no trace of vegetation on any of these tiny 
islets, the largest of which, that at the northern extremity, is about 
200 yards long and about 50 yards across, its highest point not 
being more than 7 feet above high-water. The lagoon within this 
reef carries from 3 to 3|- fathoms at its deepest portion, shallowing to 
the reef all round. 

This reef is apparently not included in Lieut. Wood’s list; § his 
No. 10 (Tatacum) may indeed refer either to this or to Pirmalla, but 
cannot include both, and probably indicates the latter. If, however, 
this should be what is meant by his Tatacum, then the statement that 
it produces coco-nuts made to him at Anderut, is incorrect. Im¬ 
mediately to the south of Cherbaniani in Lon. 7l°50'B.and Lat. 11°50 
N. lies the Cheriapani reef (Shereah of Wood’s list), called also the 
Byramgore reef, owing to the wreck there in 1827 of a Bombay 
vessel of that name. This is shown in the charts as completely 
submerged at high-water, but from what Mr. Hume was able to 
ascertain at Ameni regarding it, this appears to have several 
islets like those on the Cherbaniani reef. The statement of the 
islanders of Andei’ut to Lieut. Wood, that it produces coco-nuts and 


* Wood, “ Journ. of the Roy. Geogr. Soc.,” vol. vi., p. 30. 
t Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” vol. iv., p. 439f 
X “Stray Feathers,” vol. iv., p. 428, with map. 

$ “Jouru. Roy. Geogr. Soc.,” vol. vi., p. 30. 

306 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


is visited on that account, is doubtless incorrect; if visited at all 
it must be for birds’ eggs, or for the purpose of fishing in the lagoon. 

South-east of the Byramgore reef in Lon. 72° lO'E. and Lat. 
1 l°30'N. lies Bitrapar, visited by Mr. Hume in 1875. Mr. Robin¬ 
son had already given an account of the island.* This reef forms 
a large very regular oval 7 to 8 miles long and 4 to 5 miles across at the 
widest part. The island of Bitra, which is the only part of the 
atoll above high-water mark, occupies the north-east corner, and 
is about half-a-mile long and a quarter of a mile across, being 
nowhere more than 9 or 10 feet above high-water level. The lagoon 
is shallow at the north end and along the western side, but carries 
elsewhere 3 to 6 fathoms. The island itself is not, like the islets on 
Cherbaniani, a mere pile of coral blocks,f but exhibits the structure 
characteristic of the larger formed-islands of the group ; that 
is to say, it consists of a soil of coral-sand mixed with a 
greater or less amount of humus derived from decaying vegetation, 
this soil overlying a friable calcareous rock with a coarse oolitic 
structure, one foot to eighteen inches thick, beneath which is found 
a loose wet sand from whence, if the crust be broken through, and 
a few spadefuls of it be removed, water percolates and accumulates 
in the hollow so formed.J In Bitra, however, though the overlying 
soil is said to be excellent and the coco-nut grows luxuriantly, it is 
impossible for the people to occupy the island permanently because 
the water which accumulates in the wells made by sinking short 
shafts through this coral crust, in place of being fresh and drinkable, 
as in the inhabited islands, is so salt that the fishermen who visit the 
place, when they run short of water, dig a hole in the sand near the 
sea and drink the brackish percolations thus obtained in preference 


* Mr. Hume speaks inadvertently (“Stray Feathers,” iv., p. 435) of Mr. Robinson 
having visited this island. Mr. Robinson says (“Madras Journ.,” xiv., p. 27) that 
he was unable to visit it himself, though he obtained all the particulars he could 
concerning it. Mr. Hume’s own account is, therefore, the first description of the 
island that has been made from personal observation, 
t Hume, “Stray Feathers,” vol. iv., p. 431. 

J Robinson, “Madras Journal of Lit. and Science,” vol. xiv., p. 7; Alcock in 
Hoskyn, “ Marine Survey Report,” 1889-90, p. 12. 


. 307 



8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


to the well-water.* The island is sacred to a Pir whose tomb, 
Mr. Eobinson was told, has about 200 coco-nut trees planted round 
it as votive offerings to his name. Mr. Hume speaks of the coco-nut 
trees but does not mention the tomb. It stands, Dr. Alcock informs 
the writer, near the north end of the island in the middle of the 
Coco-nut grove, surrounded also by patches of one of the Tiilsi 
plants. An indication that the island is often visited is the presence 
in the Investigator collection of specimens of Ricinus communis 
which is frequent as a weed. Besides the Castor-Oil, the Tulsi, and 
the Coco-nut, the collections of Mr. Hume and Dr. Alcock contain 
16 species, all but three of which are undoubtedly plants of the 
littoral, sea-introduced class. It is important to note that the 
Coco-nut does not occur in a fringe round the coast as would probably 
be the case were that species here introduced by the sea ; besides 
their being confined to the middle of the island we have the express 
statement of the islanders to Mr. Robinson that the trees were 
deliberately planted during their fishing and egg-collecting visits. 
The most interesting species on the island is Pisonia alba, here 
clearly sea-introduced, which has not been reported from any other 
member of the group, and has never indeed been found growing 
undoubtedly wild either in India or in Ceylon. 

To the south and a little west of Bitrapar, in Lon. 72° E. and Lat. 
11° 10' N., is situated the third open reef of Pirmalpar which has 
been visited by Mr. Hume, who describes it f as a huge triangular 
atoll with only one small bank, at the north-east corner, about 200 
yards long and 50 yards across, uncovered at high water but with 
the greater portion of the reef visible at low tide. The islet—which 
derives its name of Pirmalla from a tradition of the people that their 
ancestors, the original settlers in the archipelago, formed part of an 
expedition which set out from Malayala (the Malabar coast) for 
Mecca in search of their apostate King Barman Pirmal, but was 
wrecked in these islands J—is not composed, like those on the Cher- 
baniani reef, of accumulations of coral debris, but is a bare, smooth. 


* Eobinson, “ Madr. Journ.” vol. xiv., p. 27. 
t “ Stray Feathers,” vol. iv., p. 450. 

J Robinson, “ Madr. Journ.,” vol. xiv., p. 8. 


808 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


9 


Wind-swept sand-bank absolutely devoid of any vegetation * It is 
therefore clear that, whether the Tatdcum of Lieut. Wood’s list 
r'efeis to this reef or to Cherbaniani, the islanders misinformed him 
when they assured him that it produced coco-nuts. Perhaps, how¬ 
ever, the people of Anderut, who probably do not themselves visit 
this reef, seeing this is a British and not a Cannanore possession, 
only knew that the island was visited periodically, without being 
aware whether the visits were paid in order to obtain coco-nuts or 
merely for fishing and egg-collecting. 

South-east of Pirmalpar between Lon. 72® 10' and 72° 20' E. and 
between Lat. 10° 50' and 10° 57' K lies the large atoll of Akati, the 
most westerly of the inhabited islands and the only inhabited island 
of the western chain of peaks. This atoll, which encloses a large 
lagoon inside which vessels of some size find an anchorage, was 
visited in 1875 by Mr. Hume, who describes the reef as somewhat 
shoulder-of-mutton shaped, the knuckle to the south-west with 
Akati itself in the middle of the knuckle, and with two small un¬ 
inhabited islands, Bangaro and Tangaro, towards the edge of the 
blade at the north-east corner. The barrier reef is high and 
strongly marked on the north, north-east and more than half the 
eastern side, where, Mr. Hume thinks, there are some points bare 
at high water ; elsewhere it is much lower, a considerable portion 
being covered even at low tide, and being pierced by deep ship- 
channels in several places.f Mr. Hume also mentions a sand bank 
which is devoid of vegetation; this is probably the Akati Feti 
(No. 1 7) of Wood’s list. Mr. Hume landed on Bangaro (Bangaram, 
Wood) which he describes as “ a mass of vegetation down to the 
“ water’s edge, dense with cocoanuts above and screw pines below,” 
the undergrowth being also very dense; the plants growing with 
a luxuriance that ‘^contrasted strongly with the generally-stunted 
“ growth of the same species on Betrapar.” The plants that 
Mr. Hume collected were mainly those he had not already obtained 
or noted in Bitrapar ; the specimens belong to 10 species, all save 
one of which {iSetaria verticillata) might have been introduced by the 


2 B L 


* Hume, “Stray Feathers,'’ rol. iv., p. 351. 
t Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” vol. iv., 451. 


309 



10 JOVRKAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


sea. The interior of the island was found to be an almost irapene- 
, trable thicket, largely composed of Gaesalpinia Bonducella bushes.* 
This account of the zone of coco-nuts points clearly to their having 
been here introduced by the sea. 

Tangaro (Tenakerry, Wood), the other minor island on the reef, 
was also visited by Mr. Hume, who describes it as less wooded than 
Bangaro ; he did not collect any specimens. According to Lieut 
Wood’s table this, like the last, is visited on account of its 
cocoanuts, which is doubtless correct. 

On Akati itself Mr. Hume was unable to land, but it was visited in 
1891 by Dr. Alcockand Mr. Fleming. The plants collected—which 
include 32 weeds of cultivation or garden-escapes, and 13 sea-shore 
species, with only one plant (Tylophora asthmatica) that may be a 
wind-introduced species—show that there is no true jungle, but that 
the whole of the island is under cultivation. Mr. Fleming’s list of 
cultivated species includes Galophyllum innphyllum (of which there 
is but one tree, planted) ; Thespesia populnea (planted, but also 
occurring wild); Seshania grandiflora (planted to support the Pepper- 
vine); the Tamarind; the Pomegranate (about half-a-dozen plants 
bearing good fruit); the Papaya; the Sweet-Potato (only one 
small plot); the Bird’s-eye Ohillie (only in a 'wild’ condition); 
Datura (which occurs pretty frequently, but also only in a ' wild’ 
condition); ilfim&t'Z'is Jalapa; the Pepper-vine (an object of great 
care); the Bread-fruit (only one tree, in a garden); Tacca pinnaHJida 
(cultivated only); Golocasia antiquorum (only in a ' wild ’ condition). 
Mr. Fleming’s list omits the Supari {Areca catechu) ; from a similar 
list for Kiltan, where it does occur, it is also omitted, perhaps there¬ 
fore the omission here is only an oversight. The island is covered 
with Ooco-nut palms and there are several large fresh-water tanks, 
paved and terraced and walled with slabs of coral-volite ; in these 
occurs the universal water-weed Ghara.^ 

Due south of Akati, in Lon. 72° 12' E. and Lat. 10° N., lies the 
Suhelipar reef, which is shown on Lieut. Moresby’s Chart as an oval 
. atoll with an opening in the reef at the north-end and with the 


* Hume, “Stray Feathers,” vol. iv., 452. 

+ Alcock, “ Administration Report of Marine Survey of India,” year 1891-2, p. 10. 
310 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


11 


uninhabited island of Suheli {‘ Soilee/ Wood) near the centre of its 
south-eastern side. According to Lieut. Wood’s list, this island 
is visited on account of its coco-nuts, but no topographical account 
of the atoll being available, it is impossible to say with certainty 
whether Suheli is a sand-bank like Pirmalla, an accumulation of 
coral debris like the islets on Cherbaniani, or a formed-island like 
Bitrapar. 

The most northerly of the formed islands and the northmost 
member of the central chain is the inhabited island of Chitlac (Lon. 
72*^ 45' E,, Lat. 11° 45' N.), visited and described by Mr. Robinson. 
Mr. Hume was unable to land in 1875,* and Dr. Giles, who 
landed during the Investigators visit in 1887, confined his attention 
to the marine fauna.t Mr. Robinson describes the island as 
two to two and a half miles long and about three-quarters of 
a mile wide, situated on the eastern side of a large and perfect 
atoll. The surface is less even than in the other islands, owing 
to a ridge of sanddrift that runs up the middle, rendering the 
soil so poor that the growth of coco-nut tree is slow and their 
outturn poor., ‘‘ Low mounds of sand occupy a great part of the 
“ centre and best protected parts of the island on which nothing 
“ grows, except scanty crops of a plant called Teerny, on the roots of 
“ which a small ball about the size of a pea grows ; after the plant 
“ has withered, these are gathered from among the loose sand and 
‘'used by the islanders. Dry cultivation on this island is very in- 
" significant.” J The Teerny is obviously Tacca pinnatifida, which 
we know from Lieut. Wood to be cultivated in Anderut, and from 
specimens in the Investigator collections to be grown in Akati and 
in Minikoi. The tubers, however, are apparently unusually small in 
Chitlac, for the specimens of those grown in Akati and Minikoi sent 
to Calcutta are as large as plums. Still even these latter compare 
very unfavourably with the tubers of Tacca as it occurs wild on the 
shores of the Andaman Sea ; there they are usually larger than a 
man’s fist, and are often as large as the human head. 

* Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” vol. iv. p. 436. 

t Carpenter, “Administration Report of Marine Surrey of India,” year 1887-8, p. 7. 

X Robinson, “ Madr. Jonrn.,” vol. xiv., p. 26. 


311 



12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HLSTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


South-east of Chitlac, in Lon, 73° E. and Lat. 11°28'. N., lies 
Kiltan, the smallest inhabited island of the group. It has been 
visited and described by Mr. Robinson,* by Mr. Hume,t who also 
has published a map of the island, and by Dr. Alcock;| Both 
Mr. Hume and Dr. Alcock.have made collections, and a third col¬ 
lection has been obtained by Dr. Alcock and Mr, Fleming during 
the second Investigator visit in 1891. The atoll of Kiltan “is a 
“ long oval reef enclosing the usual lagoon with one entrance at the 
“north-west corner, surrounded by the usual shelving bank, varying 
“from one-eighth to half a mile in breadth, beyond the edge of which 
“the lead drops at once into very deep water, and with the whole 
“ eastern side of thereof converted into an island which is nearly two 
“ miles in length, and may average nearly a quarter of a mile in 
‘width.’^§ “ The lagoon is large but shallow, and is nearly dry at low 
“ water. The whole island is devoted to the cultivation of the coco- 
“ nut, the trees being planted down to the water^s edge on every side; 
“the substratum of coral-rock is nowhere broken up for grain culti- 
“ vation, which therefore hardly exists on the island. The population 
“ being too limited to consume the coco-nut leaves, the ground in 
“some parts is covered with decaying vegetable matter, most bene- 
“ficial to the trees. In other islands it is necessary to rear plants for 
“one year with care and then transplant them ; in this, a nut buried 
“ with a knife will grow, requires no attention, and comes into bearing 
“early.^’11 Mr. Robinson mentions the Bread-fruit, Areca-nut, and 
Lime as trees that are planted by the islanders, but says that they do 
not thrive; in addition to these Mr. Hume mentions the Papaya, the 
Horse-radish tree, the Plantain and the Castor-oil plant;/beside 
these, Mr. Fleming also enumerates the Agati {Seshania grandifiora) 
which is grown as a support for the Pepper-vine, a plant on which the 
people bestow much attention ^ythe Melon too is reported by Mr. 
Fleming as ‘ only cultivated,^ as perhaps is the Cucumber, of which 

* Robinson, “Madr. Journ,,” vol. xiv., p. 23, 

t Hume, “Stray Feathers," vol. iv., p. 436, with Map. 

X Alcock, in Hpskyn, “ Administration Report of Marine Survey of India," year 
1889-90, p. 12. 

f Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” vol. xiv., p. 436. 

II Robinson, “ Madras Journal,” vol. xiv., p. 24. 

312 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


»13 


Mr. Fleming has communicated one specimen, found growing ‘wild.’ 
He also found a hummock of Khus-khus grass muricatus), 
no doubt planted, growing near the mosque, and noted the 
American Aloe, introduced from the mainland, and growing well. 
The indigenous vegetation belongs almost entirely to the class 
of ‘littoral’ species, of which Mr. Hume’s, Dr. Alcock’s and 
Mr. Fleming’s collections contain ten; the only noticeable points 
concerning this group are that the whole lagoon-face of the island 
is described by Hume as lined with a hedge of Scaevola Koenigii, 
and that Thespesia populnea is reported by Fleming as here only an 
indigenous, never a planted tree. 

There is, says Dr. Alcock, no true jungle in the interior,* and the 
only species that cannot be classed either as ‘weeds,’ or as ‘littoral 
species’ are Vitis car9^osa (probably bird-introduced), and Tylophora 
asthmatica andLeptadenia reticulata (probably both wind-introduced). 

As in the case of Akati, the majority of the species present are 
either weeds or escapes, planti unintentionally introduced by man; 
of these, the three collections together contain thirty-one species. 

Kadamum lies south-west of Kiltan and due south of Ohitlac in 
Lon. 72° 44' E. and Lat.° 11° 12' N. Of this island topographical 
accounts have been given by Mr. Robinson who visited it in 1844 and 
1845, and by Mr. Hume who visited it and made a botanical collec¬ 
tion in 1875, while Dr. Alcock and Mr. Fleming made a second and 
very exhaustive botanical collection in 1891. Kadamum is the 
largest island of the group and is situated on a long oval atoll like 
that of Kiltan ; the reef here is, however, about 4^ miles long, and 
the island itself 3^ miles long and about three-quartei-s of a mile 
across the widest portion. The lagoon is also larger and much deeper 
than that of Kiltan, but with no good passage through the reef.f 
“ The body of the island appears genei’ally lower than that of any 
“ of the others, and has an excellent natural protection in a ridge of 
“low sand-drift which runs down the west side,”+ The soil is 
naturally fertile, being damper and firmer than in some of the other 

* Alcock, in Hoskyn, “ Administration Eeport of Marine Survey of India,” year 
1889-90, p. 13. 

f Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” vol. vi., pp. 443, 444. 

J Eobiuson, “ Madr. Journ.,” vol. xiv., p. 20, 


313 



14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


islands, but the coco-nut cultivation is limited to a strip across 
the middle, leaving more than three-fourths of the island, divided 
into two nearly equal parts on either side'of this strip, covered with 
natural jungle, the southern portion of the island being occupied 
by a thick low scrubby undergrowth in which the Screw-pine is 
conspicuous, the western part being an open plain covered with 
grassy weeds and low bushes. The island, “ especially in its 
“ northern half, has a deserted and neglected air, and the coco-nuts, 
“ instead of dominating the scene and monopolising attention, are 
“ almost lost sight of in the surrounding jungle^’.*/ There is no area 
specially prepared for grain-tillage, but the natural soil being better 
adapted for the purpose than in the other islands, a considerable 
portion of the dry-grain raised in the group is produced in this island. 
The people of Ameni go there and cultivate during the mon¬ 
soon, ragi {Eleusine. Coracana), jowari [Soi’gJiu m vulg are), and 
loha {Vigna Catjang),fJ Mr. Hume mentions two species of the 
cultivated class, viz.; Indig of era tinctoria, which he speaks of as 
‘wild’ ; Dr. Alcock also sends specimens of this without any 
remark, as if he too had found it in a ‘wild’ state: also Ixora 
Bandhuca, which was common at the time of Mr. Hume’s visit, but 
which Dr. Alcock does not appear to have met with. Mr. Fleming’s 
list of cultivated plants includes Sesbania grandiflora, with the 
Pepper-vine it is grown to support; the Papaya; the Cape Goose¬ 
berry {Physalis peruviana^ also reported by Mr. Hume from the 
adjacent island of Ameni); the Castor-oil plant; the Banyan (of 
which four examples occur, planted near some deserted huts) ; the 
Plantain (of which four were seen in the neighbourhood of the Ban¬ 
yans). Mr. Fle'ming does not report lacca pinnatifida, though pro¬ 
bably this, as in the other islands, is the Taro that is cultivated — 
the other Taro {Colocasia antiguorurn) he reports as present here^ 
as it is in all the other islands, but, as in these, only in a ‘ wild ’ 
condition. 

The littoral species reported from Kadamum are 19 in number. 
These include Tliespesia populnea, which, planted in some of the 

Alcock, “ Administration Report of Marine Survey of India,” year 1891-2, p. 9. 

t Robinson, “Madr. Journ.,” vol. xiv., p. 22. 

314 




BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


15 


islands, occurs here as an undoubtedly indigenous, sea-introduced, tree, 
and Ouef tarda sjpeciosa, occurring in large clumps, not recorded from 
any other member of the group. Scaevola Koenigii is very abundant 
all round the coast, as is the Screw-pine, but Ipomoea hiloha, very 
abundant on some of the islands, e.g., in Bitrapar, where it covers the 
whole beach, and in Akati, where it also extends into the iuterior of the 
island, is here confined to the shore, and is not very common even 
there. Wedelia scandens is one of the most common plants, and is 
spread all over the interior as well as round the coast; the same is 
tree of Cassytha filiformis^ which, in some parts, loads the scrubby 
undergrowth. Two other sea*coast species that here extend inland 
from the shore, and form a large part of the shrubby interior jungle, 
are Morinda hracteata and Premna integrifolia. In strong contrast 
with Bangaro, where Oaesalpinia Bonducella is so common as to 
form the basis of the jungle, it is noted in the In'cestigator 
collections that only one plant of this species was met with 
in Kadamum. 

Truly inland species that combine with Pandanus, Premna, and 
Morinda to form the shrubby part of the jungle are Flacourtia 
sepiaria, Pavetta indica, and Pleurostylia Wightii. All these are 
noted as “ very common throughout the island." The last-named 
is a particularly interesting addition to the Laccadive Flora; all 
three are very likely bird-introduced species. 

Two creepers, almost certainly wind-introduced, occur both inland 
and along the shore, these are Leptadenia reticulata and Tylophora 
asthmatica ; “ a tall loose-flowering grass [Apluda aristata) fills 
^‘all the outskirts of the jungle."* 

The weeds and escapes from cultivation that occur number 42 ; 
gome of these may perhaps be bird-introduced species; probably, 
however, most of them have been unintentionally introduced by 
man, and the high totalis obviously the result of the fact mentioned 
by Mr. Eobinson, that this is the island where the Ameni people 
grow the greater part of what grain-crops they raise. The most 
interesting of these weeds is the Mudar (Caloiropis gigantea), “ very 
‘^common in the centre of the island near the huts" [Investigator 


Hume, “Stray PeatLers,” vol. iv., p. 445. 


315 



16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BISTORT SOCIETY, 1892. 

note), and therefore possibly, though not a cultivated species, one 
originally deliberately introduced because of the excellent quality 
of the fibre it yields, which is used, by the Mapilla population of the 
mainland at least, for making fishing-lines. Another interesting 
weed is a rather insignificant, but very rare sedge [Cyperus hyaliiius). 
The most interesting “ escape*^ is undoubtedly the Indigo plant 
which forms whole fields, broken only by patches of Ixora coccinea 
(I. Bandhuca)* 

A short distance to the south of Kadamum (Lon. 72° 43' E., Lat. 
11° 8' N.) lies Ameni, the most important of the British Laccadives. 
This island, about two miles long and three-quarters of a mile 
across, is low, with a very uneven surface. Situated originally on 
the eastern side of its atoll, the island has grown westward into the 
lagoon, till now no lagoon-space isleft, and the island is consequently 
so ill-protected from the sea that the soaking of coco-nut coir 
among the sand, practised in all the other islands, is here impossible. 
The soil in this island is naturally poorer, according to Mr. Robin¬ 
son, who, as well as Mr. Hume, has visited and described it, than it is 
in Kiltan or Kadamum, a fact which Mr. Kobinson explainsf by the 
consumption in various ways, by its dense population, of the fallen 
coco-nut leaves, thus depriving the ground to some extent of the 
advantage of the natural manure that the soil of the other islands 
receives. The whole island is under cultivation, principally coco¬ 
nut, and there is no underwood. The coco-nut plantation runs 
down to the sea-side on the east and the north, but along the 
western, more exposed side, a strip of waste land 200 yards wide is 
interposed between the plantation and the shore, while at the south¬ 
west corner and south end of the island, where the exposure is too 
great for young trees and the dry sand is deeper than elsewhere 
many acres are lying waste. 

The structure of the island is like that of the other formed 
islands already described j the soil is of light coral sand, finer 
than, and quite as dry as, common sea-sand, or, in some parts, of 
small loose pieces of coral. This soil varies in thickness from two 


316 


t Hume, “ Stray Feathers, ” vol. iv., p. 445. 
It Robinson, “ Madr. Jouru.,” vol. xiv-, p. Id. 




BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


17 


to six or eight feet, and has a bare sandy surface, which gets wind¬ 
blown unless covered with undergrowth; where the soil is under 
coco-nut or other cultivation this sand is hidden by the humus, of 
variable thickness and richness, that has accumulated. Underneath 
this surface soil of sand and humus is the bed of coral-rock 
already mentioned in the account of Bitrapar. This layer, a 
foot to two feet thick, appears to be just above water-level and 
stretches uniformly throughout the island. Underneath this layer 
lies a bed of wet sand and when the crust is cut through and well 
or small tanks are dug in the damp subsoil the people obtain a 
constant supply of water, slightly brackish but still potable, except 
in the case of Bitra, where, as has been already said, the wells yield 
water which is quite salt. The water in these tanks and wells rises 
and falls a little with the tide. 

In the middle of Aradni, however, unlike any of the islands yet 
described, the upper soil and the coral-crust have been completely 
removed from about 50 acres of ground, the surface of the soil 
thus left being hardly above the level of the sea. This carefully 
prepared area, termed locally the kat, has a poor, light, sandy soil, 
but is fertile on account of having the subsoil water within a 
foot or so of its surface. This kat is reserved practically 
for the cultivation of grain and vegetables. “ The 
'‘coco-nut trees planted in or about its edges are exceedingly 
“ fine * the Bread-fruit rees, which are numerous in Ameni, 
grow most luxuriantly here, while considerable numbers of 
Betel-nut trees occupy the same situation. The cultivated plants 
enumerated by Mr. Robinson include, besides the coco-nut, betel- 
nut and bread-fruit, the ragi {Eleusine Goracana), jowdri [Sorghum 
vulgare)i hadag [Setaria verticillata)^ Sweet-Potato, Yam, Plantain, 
Castor-oilplant (cultivated for its oil) andAnatto (grown for its dye, 
Several hundredweights of fruit of Bixa Orellana being annually 
exported to Malabar); the Lime is also mentioned by him as being of 
excellent quality and the trees as numerous. In addition to these 
Mr. Hume mentions the Pomegranate, Papaya, and Horse-radish 
tree as common ; he observed also some Banyans, some Tamarind 


3 £ L 


Robinson, " Madr, Journ.,” voL. xiv , p. 18. 


317 



18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


trees, some Amla {Emhlica officinalis), and a number of Poou-trees 
{Calophyllum inophyllum), ffianted. He further enumerates among 
cultivated vegetables Golocasia antiquorum, which in all the other 
islands appears to be in a ^wild* condition. He notes having 
observed all the sea-shore species obtained in Bitrapar except a 
sedge {Cyperus pachyrhizus), and his specimens include Euphorbia 
Atoto which has not been found on the coasts of any of the other 
islands. i 

/'Mr. Hume’s is the only collection made in Am^ni ; it includes 
/eleven species that may be classed as weeds as well as the following 
/ species that should probably be considered as ‘ escapes from culti- 
/ vation’ :— Datura fastuosa, Physalis peruviana, Mucuna capitata, 

I Clitoria ternatea,and Barter ia Prionitis; all these are garden or hedge 
plants well known in India, here they all appear to be growing in a 
‘ wild ’ state^ 

The Piti ^nd-bank, situated in Lon. 72®35'E. and Lat. 10° 45' N.,, 
is on the extreme southern edge of a large sunken bank twenty 
miles long, that extends to this point from the vicinity of Ameni.'*' 
The rest of the bank carries from six to twenty fathoms of water, the 
snbaerial patch is about 300 yards long and 200 yards across, 
standing about 6 or 7 feet above high-water mark, and is quite 
devoid of vegetation. It evidently occupies the south-eastern 
corner of a sunken atoll, for, whereas on all other sides bottom is 
found at 10 or 12 fathoms, on the south-east side one finds 100 
fathoms close up to the bank and immediately beyond are 
deep-sea soundings. Quite like this bank, it may be remarked, 
is that of Elikalpeni (Lon. 74“ 5' E. Lat. IP 15' N.), a peak about 
35 miles north-east of Anderut, which does not, however, become 
subaerial at all. This peak, the nearest of the Laccadive Group to 
India, is a small dead-coral bank with a few bunches of live-coral 
on it, carrying 7 to 8 fathoms and with no sign of shoal water.t 
Similar also, though of larger size, especially the first named 
of the three, and giving rather deeper soundings, are the dead- 


* Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” vol. vi., p, 453. 

t Carpenter, “Administration Repoi't of the Marius Survey of India,” year 1888-88, 




- BOTANY OF THE LAOCABIVES: — ^9 

coral banks of Bassas do Pedro (20-30 fatboms)* * * § , Sesostris Bank 
(11-30 fathoms), and Koradivli (23-26 fathoms), lying to the north 
of the Laccadive Archipelago. It is curious to note that the name 
of the last mentioned bank appears to be applied by the author of 
the Tohfat-al-Mujahidin to one of the inhabited islands of the 
archipelago, t 

South of the Piti Bank lies Korati, a large inhabited island in 
Lon. 72° 40' E. and Lat. 10° 35' N., visited by Mr. Hume, He 
speaks of it J as a fine island of the usual type with a fair lagoon. 
The soil appears to be better than that of Ameni, the cultivation 
practically identical; the only wild species that Mr. Hume collected 
was the sea-shore laurel, Eernandia peltata ; this he did because he 
observed it here for the first time. The species is now also reported 
from Miuikoi, whence Dr. Alcoek sends specimens, but so far it 
has not been obtained in any of the true Laccadive Islands except 
Korati. A small islet, Korati Feti, which, according to Lieut. 
Wood’s table has coco-nut trees, occurs on the same reef. 

Besides the Elik^lpeni Bank, already described, the peaks of the 
Eastern chain are the atolls of Anderut and Kalpeni. 

Anderut, Lon, 73° 35' E. and Lat. 10° 45' N., is a large island 
occupying the southern face of a very extensive reef of the usual 
type. According to Lieut. Wood, who visited.it in 1834, the island 
presents a bold front to windward ; that front being, not a reef as is 
usually the case, but one side of the island itself, while the coral- 
reef on which it is based and the lagoon which the reef encloses 
project to leeward. He describes it further§ as low, well planted 
with cocoanut trees, and free from underwood. Its medium height 
“ above the sea is about 9 feet, but towards the centre of the island, 
and on its southern side, the surface is lower, and in no part does 
*'it exceed the height of 12 or 15 feet.” 


• Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” vol. vi., p. 428; 

t *' Madr. Journ. of Lit. and Sc.,” vol. xiv., p. 3. Kordeeb (Koradivh ?) is given aa 
one of the five principal islands which contain “ cities probably, however, Kiltfin 
is intended by the historian, though the name he gives is apparently that by which 
this sunken bank is known. 

J Hnme, “Stray Feathers,” vol. vi., p. 454. 

§ Wood, “Journ. Roy. Geogr. Soo,,” vol.. vi., p, 31. 


319 



20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892- 

The northern side of the island is low, the centre gently undulat- 
^'ing and the south side one continuous sandy plain, with large 
detached masses of coral-rock scattered over it. The little valleys 
“ formed by these clumps, of various figures, are under cultivation 
‘‘and produce, amongst other things, a plant not unlike our rhubarb, 
“ of a most acrid, pungent taste. It is reared as we do Jerusalem arti- 
“ chokes, set in rows, and covered with a manure of decayed vegeta- 
“ tion. They have also the Sweet-potato, but of such an inferior 
“growth that we can scarcely recognise in it the root we meet in 
‘‘ India, A small quantity of rice is grown in the rainy season; not 
' ‘ more than 15 or 20 days’ consumption. The rhubarb-looking plant 
“ appears to prefer a damp moist soil, for on the more elevated parts 
“ of the island there was none to be seen.” 

“ Of the soil the most elevated is the richest. In the valleys the 
“ coarse sand which forms the lower stratum is but scantily covered 
“ with a thin coating of vegetable matter; sterile in many places, 
“and presenting a similar appearance to a field on which a compost 
“of lime has been partially thrown; but at the higher parts of the 
“ island, where the cocoanut palm has flourished for ages, a deep 
“soil is already formed, which every succeeding season must 
“increase and render more fertile.” 

“ There are many wells on the island, and one small tank, but 
good fresh water is to be had all over Anderut by digging to a 
“ moderate depth. Firewood is rather a scarce article, but where 
“ the cocoanut forms the chief article of food this matters little.” 

“In my ramble over the island I found the Plantain, Orange, 
“ Papaw and Lime-trees, Betel-nut, and two' species of Ootton-tree, 
“besides a fine stately-looking tree, with dark green foliage, not 
“unlike the broad-leafed Elm; this tree yields fruit, but as it was 
“ not then in season I know not its nature. The Cocoanut, Plantain 
“ and Papaw are the only cultivated fruits; the others are growiug in 
“ a wild state, and the Betel-nut excepted, occupy but little atten- 
“ tion. Although you meet with nothing amongst the trees which 
“you can term brushwood, there are plenty of creepers and coarse 
“grass.” 

Dr. Alcock, who has likewise visited Anderut says, “there is no 
“ true jungle, the island being covered with cojcoanut palms, with 
S-20 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


21 


“ a few curiously excavated areas under tillage (ragi, sweet-potato 
“and a species of arrow-root), and wild plants were therefore 
“ scarce.”* 

It is somewhat remarkable that Lieut. Wood does not mention 
the existence in 1834 of the excavated areas, the kat, indicated by 
Dr. Alcock; perhaps they have been formed since the time of Lieut. 
Wood^s visit. The “rhubarb-looking plant” of Lieut. Wood's 
account is the Polynesian Taro, Tacca pinnatifida. 

Dr. Alcock’s collection includes 16 weeds and escapes from 
cultivation, two of these {Dentella repens and Rerpestis Monnieria), 
being weeds of wet places not recorded from any of the other 
islands. His ^wild' species that are not weeds include Gloriosa 
superha, not reported from any other island ; perhaps, however, like 
Stachytarpheta indica, which he also reports and which also seems 
confined to Anderut, the Gloriosa may be here only an escape. It is, 
however, a common littoral species elsewhere, so it may quite well 
have been introduced by the sea. Thespesia populnea he notes as here 
planted only; he notes the Bread-fruit, not recorded by Lieut. Wood, 
and the American Aloe, apparently quite a recent introduction into 
the Archipelago ; this is present now in Kiltfo, however, as well as in 
Anderut. Lieut. Wood records two species of Qossypium as 
cultivated; these are not grown in any of the other Laccadive Islands 
proper; specimens of 0 . barbadese have, however, been sent from 
Minikoi, and Mr. Fleming enumerates G. herbaceuni as one of the 
cultivated species in that island. Lieut. Wood also notes that Rice 
is, or earlier in the present century was, grown to a small extent. 
He also notes having seen the Orange as well as the Lime cultivated. 
This no one else has reported, though Mr. Fleming reports the 
Pomelo as well a,s the Lime from Minikoi. 

The “ stately-looking tree with dark green foliage not unlike the 
“broad-leafed elm” is probably the Jack {Artocarpus integrifoUa); 
it has not, however, been met with in any of the other islands. 

One of the most noteworthy features of the Anderut flora is that 
it is in this island only that any ferns appear to occur; Dr. Alcock 
has sent specimens of two species, N'ephrodium molle and 

* Alcock, tn Hoskjn, “ Administration Report of the Marine Survey of India,” year 
1889-90, p. 13. 


521 




JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1S92. 


N'ephrolepis cor difolia from here, though neither he nor Mr. Huine 
have seen anj ferns elsewhere in the Archipelago. 

South of Anderut, in Lon. 73° 35' E. and Lat. 10° 5' N. lies the 
last true Laccadive atoll of Kalpeni. This island is situated on the 
eastern side of its reef, on which there is besides, according to Wood’s 
table, a sandbank, Kalpeni Feti, unstocked with vegetation. Kalpeni 
was visited by Dr. Alcock in November, 1889. He speaks of it * 
as a typical coral island, in almost every respect like Anderut and 
’^Kiltan.” 

His collection includes 19 weeds and escapes from cultivation, the 
most interesting weeds being Urena sinuata not recorded from any 
other island, and Ammania haccifera and Polygonum harhatum, two 
marsh-weeds not reported from any other island; the moKst interest¬ 
ing escape being Ocimum gratissimun, which, however, he mentions 
as occurring in Bitrapar, and which he has also collected both in 
Akati and in Minikoi. 

The coast species number 11, including Calophyllum inophyllum, 
here not planted, and Glerodendron inerme, not reported from any 
other island, not even from Minikoi. Vitis quadrangularis too, only 
reported from this island, is common on the sea-face jungle, which 
isihsre much denser than it is in Ameni, Anderut, or Kiltan. 

The usual cultivated species are reported, and there is a kat in 
which rdgi and other grains and vegetables are grown. 

The last island to be noticed is Minikoi, the position of which has 
been already indicated. The atoll is nearly circular and emerges 
from the sea on the eastern and southern sides to form a long narrow 
almost semi-circular island about 5 miles long and half a mile broad. 
The rest of the atoll is a reef that dries in places at low water and 
with the island encloses a lagoon that in places carries over 6 
fathoms. The island stands only a few feet above the sea ; its 
structure is identical with that of the true Laccadive islands. The 
water in the wells is clear and pleasant to drink; it contains 
roughly about 40 grs. of Chlorine per gallon.f 

* Alcock, in Hoskyn, “Administration Eeport of the Marine Survey of India,” year 
1889-90, p. 13. 

t AlooGk, in ‘Administration Report of Marine Survey of India,” year 1891-2 

p. 11. 

322 - 




BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


23 


The island is covered with coco-nut palms and subordinate jungle 
and the vegetation exhibits the generalcharacters of that of the true 
Laccadive islands, but is more luxuriant and is richer both in in¬ 
digenous and cultivated species than any of these. /Dr. Alcock and 
Mr. Fleming have made a very extensive collection, including 40 
weeds and garden escapes, ten of these (eight weeds and two 
escapes) not occurring in any of the true Laccadive Islands, with 28 
littoral species of which the following eight, Canavalia turgida and 
Canavalia ohtusifolia, Vigna lutea^ Terminalia Catappa (which ia 
ubiquitous), Sesuvium Portiilacastrum, Ochrosia horhonica, Tpomoea 
denticulata, and Convolvulus parvijiorus are not found in any 
of the other islands of the group. 

The inland ‘wild’ species include the following not recorded 
from any other island of the group :— Allophylus Cohbe, Ruellia 
prostrata, Pancratium zeylanicum, Dioscorea hulhifera, Psilotum 
triquetrum, Galymperes Dozyanum, Physcia leucomelas and Physcia 
ohscura, Pleurotus cuneatus and Pleurotus tenuAssimus, Polyporus 
igniariuSf Trametes Muelleri, Hirneola polytricha and Nostoc 
verrucosum. 

There are, it should be noted, none of the shrubby wild species 
reported from Kadamum, the whole island, excepting the coast 
zone, which has, however, a very distinct sea-fence of Pandanus, 
&c., being under cultivation. 

The cultivated or planted species are numerous, reaching a total of 
42, and include the following, not to be met with in any of the other 
islands;— Anona muricata (one tree); Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis; 
Murray a Koenigii (carefully cultivated); Citrus decumana (one 
tree on the island) ; Mangifera indica (only one tree); Arachis 
hypogcea; Psidium Guayava ; Eugenia Jamhos; Eugenia Jambolana; 
Lawsonia alba; Luffa aegyptiaca ; Momordica Charantia ; Gucurbita 
maxima ; Capsicum frutescens ; Phyllanthus distichus ; Ficus 
nitida. 

Calophyllum inophyllum and Terminalia Catappa are planted, 
though both occur indigenously as well; HJgle Marmelos is perhaps a 
species originally deliberately planted; Datura fastuosa is scarce 
here, Mr. Fleming only noting it once and then finding it cultivated 
in a garden; Gossypium barhadense is cultivated pretty frequently 

323 ^- 


24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892 . 


and grows well; Sorghum vulgare grows well, but is very little 
cultivated. The most striking features in the vegetation of Minikoi, 
as compared with the other Laccadive Islands, are the presence of 
thick sheets of the gelatinous Nostoc on the ground at the south-west 
end of the island, where also the trunks of the trees are encrusted 
with lichen and covered with moss ; the number of Fungi present; 
and the presence of Algae on the reefs of the surf-beaten weather- 
side of the island. Of these last unfortunately no specimens were 
collected. 

Two tables are appended to this topographical sketch; in the 
first the various components of the Lg,ccadive Group are shown; this 
table is a modification of the similar one prepared in 1834 by 
Lieutenant Wood {Jourv. Boy. Geogr, Soc, vi., 30). In the 
second table, in order to facilitate reference, the spelling adopted 
by the various authors who have mentioned or described the 
Archipelago is given; the first column contains the forms adopted 
by the writer. 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


25 


Table I. —List of Laccadive BayiJcs, Beefs and Islands. 


Chain of 
Peaks. 

Name. 

Western. 

Kora.divh . 

Ditto . 

Sesostris Bank-.. 

Ditto . 

Cherbaniani . 

Ditto .. 

Cheriapani . 

Ditto . 

Bihrapar . 

Ditto . 

Pirmalpar . 

Ditto . 

Akati. 

Ditto ...... 

Snhelipar . 

Central . 

Bassas de Pedro.- 


Chitlac . 

. 

Kiltan ....i 

Ditto . 

Kadamum . 


Ameni . 


Piti . 

T)ifitrt . 

Korati ... 


]V1 inilcoi . - . - . 

Eastern . 

Elikalp^ni. 


Anderut . 


KalpAni . 



4 B li 


Nature. 


Sunken bank of dead coral carrying 23-26 fathoms. 

Sunken bank of dead coral carrying 11-30 fathoms. 

Open reef with three small islets of coral debris 
devoid of vegetation. 

Open reef with (?) several small islets of coral 
debris, devoid of vegetation. 

Keef with one formed-island (Bitra), clothed with 
vegetation and with coco-nut trees in centre, but 
without inhabitants. 

Open reef with one large subaerial sand-bank 
(Pirmalla), devoid of vegetation. 

Keef with three islands, one inhabited (Akati), and 
two clothed with vegetation but not inhabited 
(Rangaro and Tangaro), also a sand-bank without 
vegetation (Akati Peti). 

Keef, probably open, with one island (Suheli), prob¬ 
ably clothed with vegetation but not inhabited. 

Sunken bank of dead coral carrying 20-30 fathoms. 

Reef with one island (Chitlac), inhabited. 

Reef with one island (Kiltan), inhabited. 

Reef with one island (Kadamum), inhabited. 

Inhabited island (Ameni) occupying the whole reef. 

Sunken bank of dead coral carrying 6-15 fathoms, 
with one subaerial sand-bank (Piti), devoid of 
vegetation. 

Reef with one inhabited island (Korati) and a 
sand-bank devoid of vegetation ( Korati Feti). 

Inhabited island (Minikoi) ; in this island the popu¬ 
lation is Maidive, though the island is politically a 
Laccadive one: in position this atoll is inter¬ 
mediate between the Laccadive and Maidive 
Archipelagos. 

Sunken bank of dead coral carrying 7-8 fathoms. 

Reef with one inhabited island (Anderut). 

Reef with one inhabited island (Kalpeni) and a 
small islet (Kalpeni P^ti). 


325 


f 













































Table II.—Names of Laccadive Reefs and Islands according to various authorities. 


26 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


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326 


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27 


^OTANT OP TUP LACGAPTVPS. 

Systematic List of Laccadiye Plants. 

Subjoiued is given an enlarged edition of the Laccadive list 
already published by the writer * This new list includes, besides 
the species recorded in the former one, all those contained in the 
collections made during the two visits paid by the Investigator subse¬ 
quently to its publication and all those mentioned by Lieutenant 
Wood, and Mr. Robinson in their accounts of the Archipelago. As 
a complete set of the specimens collected by Mr. Hume, Dr. Alcock 
and Mr. Fleming is preserved in the Calcutta Herbarium, the writer 
has been in a position to authenticate the whole of their species 5 
these are indicated in the list by an (!). Those names to which no 
mark of verification is appended belong to the species mentioned by 
Lieutenant Mood and Mr. Robinson, mentioned but not collected 
by Mr. Hume, or enumerated in Mr. Fleming’s list of cultivated 
plants, without specimens having been sent. In the preparation of the 
list, the writer has received much assistance from Dr. G. King, f.r.s., ; 
Mr. W. B. Hemsley, f.r.s., who has kindly verified some dubious 
species atKew; Mr. J. F. Duthie, f.l.s., who kindly named the 
glasses; Mr. G, Massee, f.ls., who equally kindly named the 
Lichens and Fungi, and Mr. G. R. M. Murray, p.l.s., who 
kindly named an Ascothamnion {A. intricatum) collected by 
Dr. Alcock in the lagoon at Kadamum, and who has, from these 
specimens, been enabled for the first time to state definitely that 
Aknot a vegetable at all, but is the same thing as 
Zoohotryon pelluciduvi of Ehrenb., an animal. He wishes to 
express his great obligation to all these gentlemen, and especially 
to his friend. Dr. A. Alcock, of the Indian Marine Survey, for the 
enthusiasm with which he has taken up the subject of the Laccadive 
Flora and for the thoroughness with which he and his assistant 
Mr. J. Fleming, Apothecary on board H. M. I. M. Investigator, 
have made the collections on which this list is mainlv based. 
To Captain Hoskyn,t Commander of the Investigator, who has 

* “ Scientific Memoirs by Medical Officers of tbe Army of India,” Part V. 
t The sad death of this talented Officer, which has occurred since the last of these 
collections was made, has removed from the Naval Service one of its most brilliant 
surveyors. The event is one to be deplored not alone by his own Service, and not only 
by those outside it who, like the writer, had the privilege of enjoying his personal 
friendship, but by every zoologist and botanist in the East, because of the 
interest he took in, and the great practical sympathy he always showed for, every 
branch of biological research. 


327 





28 JOURSAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 18!?2. 

also been most entbusiastic in this matter, tlie thanks of all who are 
interested in the subject of island-floras are equally due, for having 
so kindly afforded his officers these opportunities of lauding 
on, and investigating the botany of, the islands of this group. 

In the list itself purely cultivated species are indicated by a 
distinctive type; species that have become ‘escapes,’ even though 
they may at the same time be ‘ cultivated,' and trees that, though 
they may be‘planted,’occur also as ‘indigenous’ species, are not 
distinguished iu this way. The references in the list are mainly 
to Dr. Roxburgh’s Flora Indica aud to Sir J. D. Hooker’s Flora 
of British India, and as regards cultivated and economic species 
also to Dr. Watt’s Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. 

PHANEROGAMIA. 

Thalamiflorae. 

Anonacb^. 

1 . Anona mueicata Linn., Sp. PI. 536; Watt, Diet., i., 258. 
The Sour Sop. 

Minikoi; only one tree, Fleming. 

Native of America, cultivated in most tropical countries, though 
rarely in India, except in the Madras Presidency, and even there 
sparingly. 

CAPPARIDEiB. 

2. Cleome viscosa Linn., Sp. PI. 672 ; Roxb., FI. Ind., iii., 
]28; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 170. 

Ameni; Hume! Anderut; Alcoch! Akati; Fleming! Kiltan 
Fleming! 

A weed of cultivation almost cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

BiXINEiB. 

3. Bixa Orellana Linu., Sp. PI. 512; Roxb., FI. Ind., ii., 581; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 190; Watt, Diet., i., 154. The Anatto ; 
vernac. ^‘PotangJ” 

Ameni; cultivated for its dye, ‘‘several hundredweights of the 
fruit are exported yearly to Malabar,” Rohinsoyi. 

Native of America, generally cultivated throughout the tropics. 

4. Fiacourtia sepiaria Roxb., Corom. PI. i., 48, t. 68; FI. 
Ind., iii., 835 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 194. 

Kadamum; very common, Fleming ! 

Throughout Bengal, Peninsular India and Ceylon, iu dry jungles 
also in Java. 

328 


29 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 

POLYQALE^. 

5. Polygala erioptera DC., Prodr., i., 326; Hook. £., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., i., 203. 

Kadaraum; Fleming ! The narrow-leaved form (P. Vahliana DC.) 
is alone reported. 

India, Burma, Beluchistan, Arabia, Africa. 

PORTULACE^. 

6 . Portulaca oleracea Linn., Sp. PI. 445; Eoxb., FI. Ind., ii., 
463; Hook. £., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 246. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! Two very distinct forms are communicated: 
one, the ordinary annual condition; the other, a perennial state 
with very large tuberous roots exactly like those o£ P. tuherosa, 
Roxb., from which, however, it is at once distinguished by its 
opposite flat leaves, and by the denser beard of white hairs on its 
nodal appendages. 

A weed of cultivated ground and waste places, cosmopolitan in 
the tropics. 

Guttiperjc. 

7. Calophyllnm inophyllum Linn., Sp. PI. 513; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., ii., 606; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 273; Watt, Diet., 

11., 29. The Poon-Spar or Alexandrian Laurel. 

Ameni; planted, Hume ! Kalpeni; apparently indigenous, Alcoch ! 
Akati; planted, one tree only, Fleming! Minikoi; planted, but 
also occurring as an indigenous tree in the coast-zone, Fleming ! 

Cultivated throughout India, Wild on the sea-coasts of the 
Mascarene Islands; India, Ceylon, Andamans; Malaya, N. Australia 
and Polynesia. 

Malvace^. 

8 . Sida humilis Willd., Sp. PL, iii., 744; Roxb., Flor. Ind. 

111., 171; Hook. £., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 322. 

Kadamum ; Hume ! Fleming ! Akati ; Fleming! Minikoi ; 
Fleming ! 

A field and road-side weed in tropical Asia, Africa and America. 

9. Abutilon indicum G. Don ; Mast, m Hook, f., Flor. Brit. 
Ind., i., 326. 


329 


30 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1893 . 


VAR. typica. A. indicum G. Don, Gen Sjst. i., 604. Sida in- 
dicahinn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii.) 964j Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 179. 

Minikoij Fleming I 

VAR. populifolia W, & A., Prodr. i., 66. A. popuJifoluim 
G. Don, Gen. Syst., i., 603. Sida popitlifolia Lanik.^ 
Eucycl. Meth., i., 7; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 179. 

Kadamnm; Hume! Fleming! Akati; Fleming! Minikoi; 
Fleming ! 

Both varieties are widely dispersed in India, the second being 
the more common in Western India. A weed of cultivation, 
cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

10. Urena sinuata Linn., Sp. PI. 692; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 
182; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 329. 

Xalp^ni; Ahock ! 

A weed of fields and roadsides, cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

11. Hibiscus Solaudra L’Herit., Sdrp., i., 103, t. 49; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., hi., 197; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind , i., 336. 

Minikoi; common, Fleming ! 

A weed of fields and roadsides, confined to India, Ceylon and 
tropical East Africa. 

12. Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn., Sp. FI. 694 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
hi., 192; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 343. 

Akati; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A littoral species, cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores. 

13. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn., Sp. PI. 694; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., hi., 194; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind. i., 344. The Shoe- 
Flower. 

Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming ! 

Cultivated in gardens throughout India; native of China. 

14. Thespesia populnea Corr., Ann. Mus.Par. ix., 290; Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 345. llihiseus populneus Linn., Sp. PL 694; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., hi., 190. The Portia Tree. 

Anderut; planted, Alcoch! Kiltan; indigenous, Fleming! Akati; 
both indigenous and planted, Fleming! Kadamum; indigenous, 
Fleming! 

A littoral species, common on all tropical sea-shores in the Old 
VForld and Polynesia; naturalised in the West Indies. 

330 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


31 


15. Gossypium herbaceum Linn., Sp. PI. 693; Roxb., FI. Ind., 
iii., 184; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 346; Watt, Diet., iv., 26. 
Indian Cotton. 

Anderut; cultivated. Wood. Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming. 

Cultivated throughout India, yielding the Indian cottons; native 
of Old World. 

16. Gossypium BARBADENSE Linn., Sp. PI. 693 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
iii., 187; Hook., f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 347; Watt, Diet., iv., 15. 
Barhadoes Cotton. 

Anderut; cultivated, Wood. Minikoi; occurs pretty frequently 
and grows well, Fleming ! 

Cultivated throughout India, yielding the American cottons; 
native of New World. 

Tiliace^. 

17. Corchorus acutangulus Lamk., Encycl. Meth., ii., 104; 
Hook, f., Plor. Brit. Ind., i., 398. C.fuscus, Roxb., FI. Ind., ii., 582. 

KsidamumFleming ! Akati; Fleming! Minikoi; Fleming! 

A weed of cultivation, cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

Disciflorae. 

Rutace^. 

18. Triphasia trifoliata DC., Prodr., i., 536; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., i., 507. 

Minikoi; Fleming I Not found in gardens, but perhaps originally 
introduced. 

Common in gardens, and as an escape, in many tropical countries; 
the native country doubtful. The writer has collected this, with 
all the appearance of being indigenous, in Car Nicobar. It has not, 
however, been obtained in any locality where the evidence that it is 
indigenous is unequivocal. 

19. Murraya Koenigii Spreng., Syst. Veg., ii., 315; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 503; Watt, Diet., v., 288. Bergera Koenigii 
Linn., Mantiss., ii., App. 563; Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 375. 

Minikoi; carefully cultivated, Fleming ! 

20. Citrus medica Linn.: Brandis, For. Flora, 52. 

VAR. acida Brandis: Hook, f., Flor. Brit, Ind., i., 515; 
Watt, Diet., ii., 355, C. acida, Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 
390. The Sour Lime of India. 


331 


32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ELSTORY 80CLETY, 1892. 


Ameni; cultivated, ‘Hrees numerous, quality good/’ Rohinson; 
Hume, Anderut; cultivated. Wood. Kiltan ; cultivated, but does not 
thrive, Robinson, Miuikoi; cultivated pretty frequently, Fleming ! 
Probably a native of India; generally cultivated in the tropics. 

21. Citrus Aurantium Linn., Sp, PI. 782; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 
892; Hook. £., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 515; Watt, Diet., ii., 335. The 
Sweet Orange. 

Anderut; cultivated. Wood. 

Probably a native of India; cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical 
countries. 

22. Citrus decumana Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. xii.), ii., 580; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind. iii., 393; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 516; Watt, 
Diet., ii., 318. The Shaddock or Pomelo. 

Minikoi; cultivated, only one tree on the island, Fleming. 

Native of Malaya and Polynesia, generally cultivated in S.-E. Asia. 

23. .ZEgle Marmelos Corr., Trans. Linn. Soc., v., 222; Roxb,, 
Flor. Ind.,ii., 579; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 516; Watt, Diet., i., 
117. The Bael. 

Minikoi; Fleming! 

Cultivated and wild throughout India. 

SiMARUBEiE. 

24. Suriana maritima Linn., Sp. PI. 284; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. 
Ind., i., 522. 

Bitrapar; Eiirnef Fleming! Bangaro; Flume! Kadamum 
Fleming! Minikoi; F'lemmg / 

Cosmo|)olitan on tropical sea-shores. 

Celastrine^. 

25. Pleurostylia Wightii W. & A., Prodr. 157; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 617. Oelastrus ojoposita Wall, in Roxb., Flor. 
Ind. (ed. Carey), ii., 398. 

Kadamum; very common throughout the island, Fleming ! 
Mascarene Islands; Malabar, Ceylon, 

Rhamnej]. 

26. Colubrina asiatica Brogn., Ann. Sc. Nat., ser. i., X., 
369; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 612. Ceanothus asiatieus Linn., 
Sp. PI. 196; Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 615, 

332 


BOTANY OFTHE LACCADIVES. 


38 


Akatl; Fleming ! Klltan; Fleming ! 

Littoral species common on sea-coasts of S. Africa, the Mascarene 
Islands; India, Ceylon; the Malay Archipelago and Australia. 

AmPELIDEjE. 

27. Vitis quadrangularis Wall, Cat. n. 5992; Hook, f., 
Dor. Brit. Ind., i., 645. Cissits guadr angular is, Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
i., 407. 

Kalpeni; Alcock ! 

East Africa ; India, Malaya; common on the sea-shores of the 
Andaman group, where it is unequivocally indigenous. Lawson 
{Flor. Brit. Ind. 1. c.) states that the stems are eaten in curries in 
Ceylon. He does not quote any authority, the statement is certainly 
not derived from Thwaites, who says {Emm PI. Zeylan., 62) that 
the stems are used medicinally. The species is not cultivated in 
Kalpeni; it is most probably a bird-introduced species. 

28. Vitis carnosa Wall., Cat. n. 6018; Hook, f, Dor. Brit. 
Ind., h, 654. Cissus carnosa, Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 409. 

Kiltan ; A Icock ! Fleming ! 

India and Malay Peninsula ; probably a bird-introduced species. 
Though both Dr. Alcock and Mr. Fleming found it growing 
profusely, Mr. Hume did not meet with it; perhaps, therefore, it is 
a recent introduction, possibly during the interval between 1875 
and 1889. 

SAPlNDACEiE. 

29. Cardiospermum Halicacabum Lmn., Sp. PI. 366; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 292 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 670. 

Ammii; Hume ! Kalpeni; Alcock ! 

A weed of road-sides and waste places, cosmopolitan in the 
tropics. 

30. Allophylus Cobbe Blume, Rumphia, hi., 131; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., i., 673. Ornithotrope Gohhe Willd., Sp. PL, n., 
322 ; Roxb., FI. Ind. ii., 268. Ehus Coble Linn., Sp. PI 267. 

Minikoi; Fleming! 

A littoral or sub-littoral species distributed throughout S.-E. Asia 
and N. Australia, but almost certainly a bird-introduced, not a 
sea-introduced, species. 


333 


34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL LllSTORY SOCIETY, 1802. 
Anacardiacejc. 

81. Mangipera indica Linn, Sp. PI. 200j Roxb., FI. Ind. i., 
64J ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind. ii., 13; Watt, Diet., v., 146. The 
Mango. 

Minikoi; cultivated, only one tree, Fleming. 

Cultivated throughout the tropics; native of S.-E. Asia. 
Moringej:. 

32. Morixga pterygosperma Gaertn., Fruct., ii., 314, t. 147, 
f. 2; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 45; Watt, Diet., v., 276! 
ByT^rantheraMoringaYs\i].,^ymh.,\., 30; Roxb., Flor. Ind.,ii., 368. 
Guilandina Moringa Linn., Sp. PI. 381. The Horse-Radish Tree. 

Ame'ni; commonly cultivated: Kilt^n; occasionally cultivated, 
Hume. 

Cultivated generally throughout the tropics; native of the lower 
slopes of the North-Western Himalaya. 

Calyciflorae. 

LEGUMINOSiE. 

33. Crotalaria retusa Linn., Sp. PI. 715; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
iii., 272; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 75. 

Akati; Fleming! 

A common weed or escape from cultivation in the tropics, only 
doubtfully wild in Africa or America. 

34. Crotalaria verrucosa Linn., Sp. PI. 75; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., iii., 273; Hook. f„ Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 77. 

Ameni; Hume ! Kadamum; Fleming ! 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed. 

35. Indigofera cordifolia Heyne in Roth., Nov. Sp., 357; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind. ii., 93. 

Kiltan; Fleming! Kadamum; Fleming! 

India, Afghanistan, N.-B. Africa, Malaya, N. Australia. A weed 
of waste places and fields. 

36. Indigofera tinctoria Linn., Sp. Pi. 751; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., iii., 379; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 99; Watt, Diet., iv., 
387. The Indigo Plant. 

Kadamum; whole fields of this species growing in a wild state, 
Hume ! Fleming ! Akati; Fleming ! 

334 


BOTAnY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


35 


Cultivated universally throughout India. Here not cultivated, 
fchotigli perhaps originally intentionally introduced. Native of 
India, but not known truly wild, except in this and similar localities, 
where it cannot possibly be ” indigenous.” 

37. Tephrosia tenuis Wall., Cat. n. 5970; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., ii., 111. 

Kadamum ; Fleming ! Akati; Fleming ! 

A. weed of cultivation hitherto known only from Scinde, Panjab, 
and Concan. 

38. Tephrosia purpurea Pers. : Baker in Hook, f., Flor. Brit. 
Ind., ii., Ud, 

VAR. pumila Baker. T. pumila Pers., Synops., ii., 330. T. 
diffusa W. & A., Prodr. 213. Galega diffusa Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., iii., 387. 

Kadamum; Fleming! Kiltan ; Fleming ! 

A cosmopolitan tropical w^eed ; very distinct from typical 
T. purpurea, and never exhibiting any intermediate states; probably 
quite deserving specific rank. 

39. Sesbania aculeata Pers., Synops., ii., 316; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., ii., 114. Ooronilla aculeata Willd., Sp. PL, iii., 1147. 
jdHschynomene spinulosa Roxb., Flor. Ind., hi., 833. 

Kalpeni ; Alcocli! 

A weed of wet places and rice-fields throughout the tropics of 
the Eastern Hemisphere. 

40. Sksbania GRANDiFLORA Pers., Synops., ii., 316; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 115. Sesba.n grandijiorus, Poir., Encycl. Meth., 
vii., 127. ^schynomene grandijlora Linn., Sp. PL (ed. ii.), 1050; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 331. Agati grandijlora Desv., Jour. Bot., hi,, 

] 20. The Agati Tree. 

Kiltan; Kadamum; Akati; Minikoi; in all four islands planted 
as a support for the Pepper-vines which the people cultivate 
carefully, Fleming. 

Mauritius; India and Ceylon ; Malaya, N. Australia; generally, 
if not always, planted in India, and usually (especially in South 
India) grown for the purpose for which the tree is used in 
these islands {Boxh., FI. Ind., hi,, 332). Native apparently of 
Malaya. 


335 


36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIRTORY SOCIETY, \m. 


41. Arachis hypog^a Linn., Sp. PI. 741 ; Roxb., Flor. Tnd., 

iii., 280 i Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 161; Watt, Diet., i., 282. 
The Ground-Nut. 

Minikoij cultivated, Fleming ! 

A native of America, cultivated largely in Southern India, more 
rarely in other parts. 

42. Desmodium triflorum DC., Prodr., ii., 334; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 173. Hedysarum trijiorum Linn., Sp. PI. 749 ; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 353, 

Akati; Fleming! Kadamum; Fleming! Kiltan ; Fleming! 
Minikoi; Fleming! 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed. 

43. Clitoria Ternatea Linn., Sp. PI. 753; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 

iii., 321 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 208; Watt, Diet., ii., 375. 

Ameni; cultivated, Hume. 

In gardens, or as an escape, throughout the tropics; not in 
Australia. 

44. Mucuna capitata W. & A., Prodr., 255; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., ii., 187. Carpopogon capitatum Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii,, 284. 

Amdni; in gardens, “ many plants * * * bunches of 

deep blackisk purple flowers, looking like Hamburg grapes,” Hume ! 

India and Java; perhaps only a cultivated form of the common 
Cowhage {Mucuna pruriens DO.) 

45. Canavalia turgida Grail.-irt Wall., Cat. n. 5584 A.;Miq., 
Flor. Ind. Bat.,i., 215. C. ensiformis var. turgida Baker in Hook, 
f,, Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 196. Dolichos rotundifolius Roxb., Flor. Ind., 

iii., 302. Rheede, Hort. Malabar., viii„ t. 43. Probably = C. 

folia DO., Prodr., ii., 404. 

Minikoi; very common, a climber on the Pandanus sea-fence, 
Fleming! 

Littoral species ; coasts of Bengal, Burma, Andamans and Nico- 
bars, Malay Peninsula and Java (M'ig'we?,). Also Coromandel Coast, 
''on islands at mouth of Godaveri river” {Roxhurgh), and Malabar 
Coast, “ locis arenosis’’ Cochin (Rheede). 

Roxburgh’s and Rheede’s plant is, without doubt, from the 
former writer’s account and the latter’s figure of the ^'semi- 
elliptic’’ (Roxburgh), turgid pod, the same as Graham’s Wallichian 
336 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


37 


plant from Penang, yet Mr. Baker places the Indian plant in 
C. obtasifoUa and regards the Penang one as a variety of 
C. ensiformis^ 

It is therefore better in the meantime to consider C. turgida 
Grah. to be a plant specifically distinct from C. virosa (the wild form 
ot C. ensiformis), as well as from C. ohtusifulia. 

46. Canavalia obtusifolia DO.; Baker m Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., ii., 196 (syn. Dolichos rotundifoliiis Boxb. excl.); 
Clegh., Madr. .Journ. (n. s.), i., t. 4. Dolichos ohcordatus Eoxb., 
Flor. Ind., hi., 303. Probably = 0. lineata DC., Prodr., ii., 404. 

Miuikoi; on sandy beach, Fleming ! 

A littoral species cosmopolitan on tropical shores. 

It is interesting to and on the same island examples of both these 
sea-coast Cwiavalim* The specimens of C. turgida are both in 
flower and with fruit, those of C. obtusifolia are in flower only, but 
are exactl}^ like the Madras ones (in Herb. Calcutta) of Wallich 
(Cat. n. 5532), of Wight and of Gamble. They are well dis¬ 
tinguished, as Mr. Baker indicates, by the racemes in C. obtusifolia 
being much the fewer-flowered, of the two. But the accuracy of 
the nomenclature is extremely doubtfub for Canavalia obtusifolia 
DC. (Prodr., ii., 401) is the exact equivalent of Dolichos obtusifolius 
Lamk. 295),, which in turn is, according to Lamarck 

himself, the plant figured by Rheede [Hort. Malabar., viii., t. 43). 
It is moreover the equivalent of Dolichos rotundifoliiis, Vahl (Symb. 
ii., 81), of which plant De Candolle himself saw a fruiting specimen. 
Roxburgh identified the plant described by Vahl with that figured 
by Rheede.. It seems therefore clear that Rheede’s Katu-Tsjandi, 
Lamarck’s Dolichos obtusifolius, Vahl’s and Roxburgh’s Dolichos 
rotundifoliiis, De Candolle’s Canavalia obtusifolia and Graham’s 
Canavalia turgida are one and the same sea-coast species, which 
species is entitled to the name Canavalia obtusifolia. On the other 
hand, it seems clear from the specimens in Calcutta Herbarium that 
the plant common on the Madras coast figured by Cleghorn, and 
the Chinese plant cultivated in the Calcutta Botanic Garden de¬ 
scribed and figured (Icon. Ined., xx., 136) by Roxburgh as Dolichos 
ohcordatus, are specifically identical; their pods, as figured by 
Roxburgh and Cleghorn, agree well with the pods of Canavalia lineata 

337 


3S JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY BOO JETT, 1852, 

DC. {DolicJios lineatus Thunb.) from the sea-coast of Japan as <3©-^ 
scribed by De Candolle {DO., Proclr., ii., 404) and Thunberg {Flor. 
Ja'pon., 280) and as figured by linuma Yokusai (Somoko-Duaets, 
ed. ii., vol. xiii., t. 20); the species might therefore behest known 
as Canctvalia lineata. The name “ obtusifolia ’’ is more appropriate 
to 0. lineata as here understood than to the true 0. obtusifoMa of 
Rheede’s figure. In this respect, however, both species are variable, 
for the leaves of the Japanese plant {Doliehe» lineatus Thbg.) are 
quite like those of the Penang one (Oanavalia turg.ida Grah.) and 
of that figured by Rheede, though its pods are quite like those of 
the emarginate-leaved Chinese plant {Dolichos ohcordatus Roxb.) 
and of the rounded or emarginate-leaved Madras plant {Canavalia 
obtusifolia Baker, not DO.).^ 

47. PRaseolus calcaratus Roxb., Hort. Beng. 54; Flor. Ind., 
iii., 289; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 203. 

Minikoi; an escape, Fleming f 

India and Malaya, wild and commonly cultivated. 

48. Vigna lutea A. Gray in Bot. Wilkes’ Exped., i., 452; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 205. Dolichos luteies Swartz, Flor. 
Ind. Occ., iii., 1246. 

Minikoi; very common on the beach ; Fleming ! 

A littoral species, cosmopolitan in the tropics; not reported from: 
any of the Indian coasts; very abundant in the Andamans. 

AQ VrnMA riA-PTA.Tn gg, Flor. Ind. Bat., i., 188; Hook. 



Dolichos Catjang Linn., Mantiss. 259 ; 


Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 303. Vernac. Loba.” 

Ameni; cultivated, Robinson. Fadamum ; cultivated, Robinson. 

Generally cultivated throughout the tropics of the old world; a 
native of India. It is interesting to observe that it is under the 
Arabic name of loba {lubia, Forsk.), and not under an Indian name 
that it is known to the inhabitants. ^ 

50. Caesalpinia Bonducella Flem., Asiat. Res., xi., 159; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 357; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 254, 
Guilandina Bonducella Linn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii.,) 545. 0. Bonduc 
Linn., Sp. PI. 381 (pro parte). 

Bangaro; forming a dense low jungle, Hume I Akati; only one plant 
met with, Fleming [ Kadamum ; only one specimen seen, Fleming f 
338 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


39 


A littoral species, cosmopolitan in tbe tropics. 

51. Cassia occidentalis Linn., Sp. PI. 377; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., ii., 262. Senna occidentalis Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 343. 

Akati; Fleming ! 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed. 

52. Cassia Tora Linn., Sp. PI. 376 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., 
ii., 263. Senna Tora Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 340. 

Kalpeni; Alcock ! Kadamum ; Fleming ! Akati; Fleming I 
Kiltan ; Fleming I 

A tropical road-side weed, almost cosmopolitan (absent from 
Polynesia). 

53. Tamarindus indica Linn., Sp. PI. 34; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 
215; Hook, f., Flop. Brit. Ind., ii., 273. The Tamarind. 

Ameni; cultivated, Hume. Akati; cultivated, Fleming^ 

COMBRETACE^. 

54. Terminalia Catappa Linn., Mantiss., i., 128; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., ii., 430; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 444. The 
Country Almond. 

Minikoi; both planted and indigenous; “the island abounds 
with this tree, its wood being put to various uses/’ Fleming. 

A littoral species, extremely abundant in the Andamans and 
Nicobars as well as on all Malayan shores. Though now growing 
wild in Minikoi, this species has probably been originally introduced 
intentionally. It is not known wild in India. 

Myrtageai. 

55. PsiniuM Guajava Linn., Sp. PI. 470; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. 
Ind., ii., 468. Psidium pyrnferum Linn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii.,) 672; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 480. Psidium pomiferum Linn., Sp. PL 
(ed. ii.,) 672; Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 480. The Guava. 

Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming. 

Native of Mexico, cultivated and often “wild^^ and quite 
naturalized in India and other tropical countries. 

56. Eugenia Jambos Linn., Sp. PI. 470; Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 
494; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 474; Watt, Diet., iii., 287. The 
Rose-Apple. 

Minikoi; GxxMiYdAed, Fleming ! 

389 


40 JOVRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL TIISTORT SOCIETY, 1892 . 


Cultivated througliout India, Malaya and North Australia ; native 
of the warmer Eastern Himalaya. 

57. Eugenia Jambolana Lamk., Encyc. Meth., iii., 198; Roxb., 
Elor. Ind., ii., 484; Hook, f., Plor. Brit. Ind., ii., 499; Watt, 
Diet,, iii., 284, The Black Plum. 

Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming ! 

Cultivated or wild throughout India and Malaya. 

Lythrace^. 

58. Ammania baccifera Linn., Sp. PI. 120 ; Hook, f., Elor. 
Brit. Ind,, ii., 569. A vesicatoria Roxb , Plor. Ind., i., 426. 

Kalpeni; Alcock! 

A marsh weed, common throughout the tropics of Asia and 
Australia. The leaves are used as a vesicant in native medicine. 

59. Lawsonia alba Lamk., Ill., t., 296, f. 2 ; Hook, f., Plor. Brit. 
Ind., ii., 573; Watt, Diet., iv., 597. L. inermis Linn., Sp. PI. 849; 
Roxb., Plor. Ind., ii., 258. L. spinosa Linn., Sp. PI. 849, The 
Mencli or Indian Privet; Henna Plant. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A favourite hedge-plant in Indian gardens; wild in Western 
India, Afghanistan and Persia. 

60. PuNiCA Granatum Linn., Sp. P). 472; Roxb., Plor. Ind., ii., 
409; Hook, f., Plor. Brit. Ind., ii., 581. The Pomegranate. 

Ameni; cultivated, Hume. Akati; about half a dozen plants 
bearing good fruit, Fleming. Minikoi; generally cultivated, Fleming. 

Native of Afghanistan, Scinde and Persia; generally cultivated 
throughout the tropics. 

Passiflore^. 

61. Carica Papaya Linn., Sp. PI. 1036; Roxb., Plor. Ind., iii., 
824; Hook, f., Plor. Brit. Ind,, ii., 599. The Papaw. 

Kiltan; cultivated, Rume; Fleming. Anderut; cultivated, IFoo^^; 
Alcock. Akati; cultivated, Fleming. Kadamum; cultivated, 
Fleming. Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming. 

Native of America, generally cultivated throughout the tropics; 
now perfectly naturalised in various parts of India. 

CuCDRBITACE^. 

62 . Lufpa ^gyptiaca Mill, ea; Hook. f. in Oliv., PI, Trop. Afr., 

11 ., 530; Hook, f., Pdor. Brit. Ind., ii., 614; Watt, Diet., v. 96. L. 
340 


OF THE LACOAFn^ES. 


41 


pehfandra Roxb,, Flor. Ind,, iii., 712. L. racemosa Koxb., FI. Ind., 
iii., 715. L. clavata Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 714. Momordica Lvfa 
Linn., Sp. PI. 1009. 

Minikoi ; cultivated, Fleming ! 

Generally cultivated throughout the tropics. 

63. Mom-edica Charantia Lum., Sp. PI. 1009; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., iii., 707; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 616 ; Watt, Diet., v., 256. 

Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming ! 

Cultivated in tropical Africa and throughout S. E. Asia. 

64. CucuMis Melo Linn., Sp. PI. 1011; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii,, 
720; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 620; Watt, Diet., ii., 627. C\ 
utilissimus Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 721. The Sweet Melon. 

Kadamuin; growing wild’' round the village, Fleming / Kiltan ; 
cultivated only, Fleming! Akati; cultivated, Fleming! Minikoi, 
frequent, Fleming ! 

Cultivated throughout the tropics. 

65. Cdcumis sativus Linn., Sp. PI. 1012; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 
20; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 620; Watt, Diet., ii., 632. The 

Ciicmnher. 

Kiltan; ‘Hound growing wild, only one creeper seen,” / 

Cultivated throughout India, as it is in all tropical and temperate 
countries; here palpably an escape from cultivation. 

66. Cephalandra indica Naud. in Ann. Sc. Nat., ser. V., V., 1 6 ; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 621. Momordica monodeljjha Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., iii., 708. 

Akati ; Fleming ! 

A very common creeper in hedges throughout Africa, India and 
Malaya; here moat probably a species introduced by birds. 

67. CucuRBiTA MAXIMA Ducliesue m Lamk., Encyc. Meth., ii., 151 ; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 622; Watt, Diet., ii., 638. The 
Common Gourd,. 

Minikoi; cultivated and also growing “wild,’' Fleming ! 
Cultivated in all warm countries. 

FiCOIDEiB. 

68. Sesuvium Portulacastrum Linn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii.,) 684 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 509; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., ii., 659. 
Portnlaca Portulacastrum Linn., Sp. PI. 446. 


341 


42 JOtJPML, BOMBAY NATURAL ULSTORT SOCIETY, 1892. 


Minikoi; Fleming! 

A littoral species^ cosmopolitan on tropical and sub-tropical 
sliores. 

Corolliflorae. 

Rubiace^. 

69. Bentella repens Forst., Charact. Gen. 26, t. 16; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., i., 532 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 42. Oldenlandia 
repens Linn., Mantiss. 40. 

Anderut; Alcock ! 

A weed of moist places througliout tropical Asia, Australia and 
Polynesia. 

70. Oldenlandia corymbosa, Linn, ex Hiern in OJiv., Flor. 
Trop. Afric., iii., 62; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 64. 0. hiflora 
Larak., Bncyc. Meth., iv., 553, nec Linn.; Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 423. 
0. ramosa Roxb., Flor. Ind., i.,_424. 

Kalpeni; Alcock! Kadamum; Fleming! Kiltan ; Fleming! 

A weed of waste places and fields throughout tropical Asia, 
Africa and America. 

71. Oldenlandia diffusa Roxb., Hort. Beng. 11; Flor. Ind., 
i., 423 ; Hook, f , Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 65. 

Anderut; Alcock! Minikoi; Fleming! 

A tropical and sub-tropical weed of cultivation in Eastern and 
South-Eastern Asia. 

72. Oldenlandia bifiora Linn., Sp. PI. 119; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit, Ind., iii., 70. 

Kalpeni; Alcock ! Kadamum ; Fleming ! 

A weed of cultivation confined to Southern India and Ceylon. 
The Laccadive specimens agree exactly with those of Wight 
(Herb. Wight n. 1376, Kew Distrib.). 

73. Guettarda speciosa Linn., Sp. PI. 991 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
i., 686; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 126. Nyctanthes hirsuta 
Linn., Sp. PI. 6. 

Kadamum ; Hume ! Fleming ! 

A littoral species; found on all tropical shores. 

74. IxoRA cocciNEA Linn., Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii,, 145. 

VAR. Bandhuca Roxb. (sp.). I, Bandhuca Roxb., Flor. 

Ind., i., 376. 


342 


43 


Wtanf op niE Laccadives. 

Kadamum ; interspersed with the patches of wild indigo, Hume ! 
Andernt, perhaps cultivated, Alcoch. Kalpeni; at edges of patches 
of cultivation and probably planted, Alcoch ! Minikoi; Fleming / 

This form of J. coccinea is apparently a native of Southern 
India. It is common in native gardens throughout India and 
Ceylon : the bark of the root possesses valuable antidysenteric 
prop^ties. 

75. Pavetta indica Linn., Sp. PI. 110; Hook, f, Flor. Brit. 
Ind., iii., 150. Ixora paniculata Lamk,, Encyc. Meth., iii., 344. 
Ixora Pavetta Roxb., Plor. Ind., i., 385. 

Kadamum ; plentiful inshore, Fleming ! 

South-Eastern Asia; throughout India and Indo-China, and 
extending from S. China to N. Australia. 

76. MorindacitrifoliaLinn., Ilook.f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 155. 

VAR. hracteata Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 156. M. hracteata 

Roxb., Hort. Beng. 15; Flor. Ind., i., 544. 

Bangaro; Hume! Kalpeni; certainly wild, Alcoch! Kiltan; 
Fleming! Akati; Fleming! Kadamum; Fleming! Minikoi; extre¬ 
mely plentiful throughout the island, Fleming ! 

A purely littoral plant, plentiful on all the Indian, Indo-Chinese, 
Andamans and Nicobars coasts visited by the writer. Here, a.s else¬ 
where, in the region where the plant occurs, it is truly wild, aud has 
doubtless been introduced by the sea; it appears to be equally 
common also on the coasts of the Seychelle islands. Phis form, which 
it may be perhaps more convenient to consider, with Roxburgh, a 
species apart from M. citrifolia, is never cultivated in India except 
{eg., in the Calcutta Botanic Garden) as a curiosity; in Ceylou, 
according to Thwaites, it is both wild and cultivated, and from 
Mr. Fleming’s note this would seem to be the case in Minikoi. In 
Bangaro it must of necessity be just as wild as it is iu the Andamans 
and Nicobai’s, where, even in uninhabited islands, it is not merely, 
as Kurz has said, “'not infrequent,” but is in reality one of the 
chief components of the beach-forest undergrowth behind the 
sea-fence of Fandanus bushes; sometimes it is common farther 
inshore. 

This variety — or species-—is confined to India, Indo-China and 
Malaya, not reaching Polynesia or Australia. 


44 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


Com POSIT.®. 

77. Vernonia cinerea Less, in Linnsea, iv., 29 J, d vi., 673; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 233. Serratula cinerea Roxb., Hort. 
Beng. 60; Flor. Ind., iii., 406. Conyza cinerea Linn., Sp. PI. 
862. 

Arneni;. Hume I Anderut; Alcoch ! Kiltan ; Fleming f Kadamun ;, 
Fleming ! Akati; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A cosmopolitan weed of waste places and fields. 

78. Adenostemma viscosum Forst., Nov. Gen. n. 15.; Clarke, 
Corap. Ind. 28; Hook f., Flor. Brit. Ind, iii., 242. Ageratnm 
aquaticum Roxb., Hort. Beng. 61; Flor. Ind., iii., 416. 

Kalpeni; Alcoek / Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed of fields and waysides wbich also- 
not infi'equently occurs on sea-sbores growing among the ocean 
drift at high tide-mark, thus suggesting tire possibility of introduc¬ 
tion by the sea. The specimens from Kalpeni are probably referable 
to Clarke’s variety reticulata [Adenostemma reticulatvm DC. in 
Wight, Conti’ib. 8) ; they have ovate leaves (the largest being 
9“11 in. long and 3|-4 in. across), reticulate; the achenes are' 
elongate and sparsely warted. This variety is characteristic of 
South India and Ceylon. The Minikoi specimen has no leaves, but 
the achenes are precisely like those in the Kalpeni specimens. 

79. Ageratum conyzoides Linn., Sp. PI. 839; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit, [nd., iii., 243, A. cordifolium Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 415. 

Ameni; Hvrne!' Anderut; Alcoch! Kalpeni; Alcoe-k! Kiltan;, 
Fleming! Minikoi; very plentiful, Fleming! 

A weed of cultivation, originally American, but now cosmopolitan 
in the tropics. Though so common in the Archipelago,, it is not 
recorded from any of the uninhabited islands which would indicate 
that its wide and rapid dispersal is due altogether to unintentional 
human action. 

80. Blumea lacilliata DC., Prodr., v., 436 ; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., iii., 264. Conyza laciniata Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 427. 

.Kiltan; Fleming! Akati; Fleming! 

A weed of waste places distributed throughout S.-E. Asia. 

81. Eclipta alba Hassk. in Miq., Flor. Ind. Bat., ii., 65 ; Clarke,. 
Corap. Ind. 131 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 304. F. 'prostrafa 
344 


BOTANY OF THE LACCAEfVElS. 


45 


L'lnn., MantLss. 266; Koxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 468. Verhesina 
Lavenia-alha Liun., Sp. PI. 902. 

Kadaraura; Fleming! Kiltan ; Fleming! 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed. 

82. ,Wedelia calendulacea Less., Syn. 222; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., iii., 306. Verhesina calendulacea Linn., Sp. PI. 902; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 440. 

Anderut; in the excavated cultivation areas, Alcock ! 

A weed of wet places, widely distributed throughout S.-E. Asia. 

83. Wedelia scandens C. B. Clarke, Comp. Ind., 136. IF. 

hiflora Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 306 ; Prain, Laccadive List, 
5. Verhesina scandens Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 441. Wollastoiiia 
insularis DC., Prodr., v., 548. IF. Horsfieldiana Miq., Flor. Ind. 

Bat., ii., 72. 

Kadamum; Hume! "‘the island abounds with this creeper,” 
Fleming! Anderut; Alcock! Kiltan; Fleming! Minikoi; very 
common, Flem ing ! 

A purely littoral species, distributed throughout all the coasts of 
S.-B. Asia. For the correction of the error in his former list, the 
writer is indebted to the kindness of Mr. C. B. Clarke, f.r.s. 

84. Bidens pilosa Linn., Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 309. 

VAR. hipinnata Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 309. B. 

hipinnata Linn., Sp. Pl. 832 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 411. 

Kadamum ; Fleming ! 

A cosmopolitan tropical and sub-tropical weed. 

85. Crepis acaulis Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 396. Pre- 
nanthes acaulis Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 403. 

Kiltan; Alcock! 

A tropical weed, common throughout India and Burma; not 
reported hitherto from Ceylon. 

86. Launea pinnatifida Cass, in Ann. Sc. Nat.,xxiii., 85 ; Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 416. Prenanthes asplenifolia Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., iii., 404 in parte, vix Willd. 

Bitrapar; Hume! Fleming! Kadamum; FZemm^ Minikoi; very 
plentiful, Fleming ! 

A littoral species, common on the shores of India, the Mascarene 
Islands and East Africa. 


345 


46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 


Goodenovie^. 

87. Scaevola Koenigii Vahl, Symb„ iii., 36; Hook, f., Flor, 
Brit. Ind., iii., 421. S. Taccada Roxb., Hort. Beng. 15; Flor. lud,, i., 
527. Lobelia Taccada Gaertu., Fruct., i., 119, t. 25. Lobelia fru- 
iescens Linn., FI. Zeyl. 148. 

Bitrapar; very abundant, Hume/ Fleming ! Kadamum; abund¬ 
ant on the shore, Fleming! Kiltan; in a dense hedge along the 
entire lagoon face of the island, Hume, Alcock! Fleming/ Akati ; 
Fleming / Minikoi; Fleming/ 

A littoral species common on the shores of S.-E. Asia, N. Austra¬ 
lia and Polynesia; also in the Mascarene Islands and Africa. 

Plumbagine^. 

88. Plumbago zeylanica Linn., Sp. PI. 151; Roxb., Flor, 
Ind., i., 462; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iii., 480. 

Ameni; perhaps an escape from cultivation, Hume/ 

Cultivated throughout the tropics of the old world, readily escap¬ 
ing and spreading ; wild in Southern Asia. 

Apocyne^. 

89. Ochrosia borbonica Gmel., Syst. Veg. 439; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., iii., 638. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A littoral species distributed from the Mascarene Islands to 
Ceylon, the Andamans, Nicobars and Malaya; not reported from 
Indian coasts. 

AsCLEPIADEiE. 

90. Calotropis gigantea R. Br. in Ait., Hort. Kew. (ed. ii.), ii., 
78; Hook, f., Ehor. Brit. Ind., iv., 17 ; Watt, Diet., ii., 34. Ascle- 
pias gigantea Willd., Sp. PL, i., 1264 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 30. 
The Mudar. 

Kadamum ; Hume/ very common in the centre of the island near 
the huts, Fleming / 

A weedy shrub of waysides and waste places throughout South- 
Eastern Asia. It is remarkable that it should be present only in one 
of the islands, and that it should occur only in the neighbourhood of 
the people’s dwellings; these facts appear to indicate that the intro¬ 
duction of the plant has been here due to human agency, and has, 
346 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


47 


moreover, been deliberate. The milky juice of this plant is employed 
in native medicine, and it yields a fibre largely used in making 
fishing-lines. 

91. Tylophora asthmatica W. & A., Contrib. 51; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 44 Asclepias asthmatica Willd., Sp. PI., i., 
1270; Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 33. 

Kadamum; Hume I Fleming! Anderut; Alcock ! Kiltan ; plenti¬ 
ful along the shore, Fleming ! Akati; Fleming ! 

A common weed throughout South-Eastern Asia. Its juice, like 
that of the preceding species, is used in medicine; its presence in so 
many of the islands, however, as well as its habitat indicate that 
introduction has not here been deliberate; though found on the 
shore, it is probably to the wind and not to the sea that its introduc¬ 
tion is due. 

92. Leptadenia reticulata W. & A., Contrib. 47; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 63. Oynanchum reticulatum Willd., Sp. PI., i., 
1258. C. alatum Prain, Laccad. List 5, nec W. & A. Asclepias 
suherosa Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii., 38. 

Kiltan; Alcock! Kadamum; Fleming! 

A roadside weed and climber in dry jungles throughout India, 
Burma, Malaya and Ceylon. The Kiltan specimens were erroneously 
referred to Cynanchun in the former Laccadive List. 

Bo RAG IN E^. 

93. Tournefortia argentea Linn, f., Suppl. 133; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind. (ed. Carey & Wall.), ii., 4; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 145. 

Eitrapar; very abundant, Hume! Fleming! Kiltan; Alcock! 
Akati; only seedlings found germinating on the shore, Fleming! 
Kadamum; Fleming ! Mioikoi; Fleming ! 

A littoral species extending from Africa and the Mascarene 
Islands to Ceylon, the Andamans, Malaya and Australia. 

CONVOLVULACE^. 

94. Ipomoea grandiflora Lamk., Ill., i., t. 467; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., iv., 198. Convolvulus grandijiorus Linn, f., Suppl. 136. 
The Coast Moon-flower. 

Bitrapar; densely draped over the clumps of Scaevola and Tour¬ 
nefortia, Hume! Fleming! Kadamum; plentAxA, Fleming ! 


347 


48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892. 

A littoral species extending from Eastern Africa and the Masca- 
rene Islands throughout South-Eastern Asia, and thence to North 
Australia and Polynesia. This species occurs in America as a 
cultivated plant only. Ipomcea grandifiora Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 
497, is not this species, but a form of Ipomcea Bona-nox, the true 

Moon-flower,” originally introduced from America. 

95. Ipomcea Batatas Lamk., Encyc. Meth., vi., 14; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind.,iv., 202 ; Watt, Diet., iv., 478. Convolvulus Batatas 
Linn., Sp. PI. 154; Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 483. The 8weet~potato. 

Ameni; cultivated, BoUnson; Hume. Anderut; cultivated, Alcoch ; 
‘^of very inferior quality,” Wood. Akati; cultivated, “ only one 
small plot,” Fleming ! 

96. Ipomoea denticulata Ohoisy in DO., Prodr., ix., 379 ; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 208. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A littoral species extending from the Mascarene Islands to Ceylon, 
the Andamans, Nicobars, Malaya and Burma (extending as far north 
asAkyab on the coast of Arracan), thence to North Australia and 
Polynesia, but, like Ochrosia horhonica and Tournefovtia argentea, not 
as yet reported from the coasts of the Indian mainland. 

97. Ipomoea biloba Forsk., Flor. Aeg. Arab. 44; Hook, f., 

Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 212. I. Pes-Capree Roth., Nov. Sp. 109. Co 7 i- 
volvulus Pes-CaprcB Linn., Sp. Pi. 159; Roxb., Flor. Ind i 
486. ’ 

Bitrapar; plentiful, Hume! Fleming ! Kalpeni; Alcoch! Akati; on 
shore and also solitary plants in interior, Fleming ! Kadamum; only 
on shore and not very common, Fleming! Minikoi; Flemmg ! 

A littoral species, cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores. 

98. Ipomoea sinuata Ortega, Dec. 84; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. 
Ind., iv., 214. Convolvulus dissectus Linn., Mantiss. 204. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

Native of America, now widely spread in the Old World : here 
growing quite wild. 

^ 99. Convolvulus parviflorus Vahl, Symb., iii., 29; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind. (ed. Carey & Wall), ii., 51; Hook. 1, Flor. Brit. Ind ! 
iv., 220. 

Minikoi; common on the coast, Fleming ! 

348 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


49- 


Tropical A.frica ^ S.-E. Asiaj Australia. Hore, as on the shores 
of the Andamans and Nicobars, a purely littoral species; it occurs, 
however, far inland (as in Assam, &c.) as welL 

100. Evolvulus alsinoides Linn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii,) 392; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., ii., 105 ; Hook. f.,Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 200. E. ImifoUus 
Linn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii.) 392. E. angustifoUus Roxb., Flor. Ind. 
(ed. Carey & Wall.), ii., 107. Convolvulus alsinoides Linn., Sp. PL 
157. 

Kadamum; Fleming ! 

A weed of dry places in all tropical and sub-tropical countries, 
SOLANAC.®. 

101. Solanum torvum Swartz, Prodr. 47; Hook, f., Flor. 

Brit. Ind., iv., 234. 8. stramonifoliiim Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 572, 

nec Jacq. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A shrubby weed of waste places in South-Eastern Asia and 
tropical America. 

102. Physalis minima Linn., Sp. PI. 183 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 
663; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 238. 

VAE. indica Lamk., Encyc. Meth., ii,, 102; Clarke in Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 238. Nicandra indica Roem. & 
Schult., Syst., iv., 682. 

Bangaro; Hume/ Anderut ; Alcock / Kadamum; Fleming f 
Kiltan ; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming! 

A cosmopolitan weed of waste places and fields; also in 
Bangaro and Kadamum in this group, as on the Andaman coasts, 
a distinctly littoral species :• the probabilities of introduction by 
fruit-eating birds or by the sea are almost evenly balanced. 

103. Physalis peruviana Linn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii.), app. 1670; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 562 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 238. The 
Winter-cherry or Cape Gooseberry. 

Ameni; cultivated, Hume. 

Native of America, much cultivated in the Eastern Hemisphere. 
The specimens from Bangaro attributed to this species in the former 
list are in reality P. minima var. indica ; Mr. Hume may, 
however, be right in saying that the Winter-cherry is cultivated iir 
Ameni. 


349 


50 JOUBNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1502 . 


104. Capsicum PRUTESCENsLinn., Sp. PI. 189; Roxb., Plor. Ind., 
i., 574; Hook, f., Plor. Brit. Ind., iv., 239; Watt, Diet., ii., 137. 
The Chillie. 

Miuikoi; cultivated} Fleming. 

Cultivated in all warm countries, native place unknown. 

105. Capsicum minimum Roxb., Hort. Beng. 17; Flor. Ind., 
i., 574; Hook, f., Flor, Brit. Ind., iv., 239. The Bird’s-eye 
Chillie. 

Akati; as a weed, Fleming ! 

Cultivated throughout India and Malaya, probably originally 
Malayan. 

This species is extremely apt, in the warmer valleys of the 
Himalaya and in hot moist localities like the Andamans and 
Nicobars, to escape and become, as it has become here, a weed 
of waste places. It is nevertheless doubtless a plant originally 
intentionally introduced into the Laccadives. 

106. Datura fastuosa Linn., Syst. Nat. (ed. X.), ii., 932; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 561; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 242; 
Watt, Diet., iii., 32. The Black Dhatoora. 

Ameni; frequent, Hame. Anderut ; AZcocA;. Akati; occurs pretty 
frequently and is not cultivated, Fleming! Kiltan; only met with 
one plant about 100 yards from the shore,” Fleming! Minikoi; 
“only one plant seen, grown in a garden,” Fleming! 

A weed of waste places in tropical Africa and South-East 
Asia; occurs in America also, but perhaps not there indigenous. 
The Minikoi specimen, which is from a garden, is the common 
Black Dhatoora {D. fastuosa), and though in most of the islands 
it is clearly only a weed, it is not improbable that it has been 
originally intentionally introduced. It should not be forgotten that 
the species may be, and at times is, a bird-introduced one. 

SCROPHULARINEAi:. 

107. Linaria ramosissima Wall., PI. As. Rar., ii., 43, t. 153; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 251. 

Kiltan; Fleming ! 

A weed of dry places throughout Afghanistan, India, Burma and 
Ceylon. 

350 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


61 


108. Herpestis Monnieria H. B. & K., Byn., il, 125; Hook, 
f., Plor. Brit. Ind., iv., 272. ' Oratiola Monnieria Linn., 8p. PI. 
(ed. ii.) 24; Roxb., Flor. Ind., i., 141. 

Anderut; Alcoch! 

A marsb-weed, cosmopolitan in tbe tropics. 

109. Striga lutea Lour., Flor. Oocbin. 22; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. 
Ind., iv., 299. Buchnera asiatica Linn., Sp. PI. 630, in part', 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 31. 

Akati; Fleming] Kadamum ; Fleming! Kiltan; Fleming] 

A parasitic weed distributed throughout tropical Africa, the Mas- 
carene Islands, Arabia, India, Indo-China and China. It occurs 
in the Andamans (as an introduced species) ; apparently absent 
from Malaya. 

ACANTHACBiE. 

110. Ruellia prostrata Poiret, Fncyc. Meth., vi., 349; Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 411. U. ringens Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 44. 

Minikoi; very common, Fleming ] 

Common throughout India and Ceylon and extending to East 
Africa ; absent from Malaya and Indo-China. Roxburgh's 
description applies to a form with larger leaves and longer internodes 
than typical B. prostrata ; in Mr. Fleming’s gatherings (five or six 
in number) both forms occur, as well as intermediate conditions. 

111. Barleeia Prionitis Linn., Sp. PI. 636; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
iii., 36; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 482; Watt, Diet., i., 400. 
B. ciliata Hume, Stray Feathers, iv., 446, nec Roxb. B. cristata 
Prain, Laccad. List 6, nec Linn. 

Ameni; Hume ] Minikoi; planted as a hedge, Fleming / 

Tropical Africa and Asia, perhaps usually only an introduced 
plant in India. 

This is mentioned by Mr. Hume in conjunction with a number of 
apparently introduced species, and in Minikoi it is also an introduced 
plant. The specimen on which the presence of B. cristata in the 
group depends, proves on re-examination to be only an example 
of B. prionitis without any trace of spines. Mr. Hume indeed 
states that, like the spiny Acanthad, the unarfned one is “ yellow- 
blossomed ” which alone makes its identification with B. ciliata 
{B. cristata!) impossible. And Mr. Fleming’s Minikoi specimens 

361 


62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1892 


shew the same peculiarity of some bein^ spiny^ while others are 
quite unarmed. 

112. Bungia linifolia Nees w Wall.^ PI. As. Ear., hi., 110; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 548. 

Kadamum ; very common, Fleming ! Akati; common, Fleming I 

A weed of dry places confined to Western India. 

113. Rungia parviflora Nees : C. B. Clarke in Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., iv., 550. 

Yku. pectinata Clarke: Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 550, 
B, pectinata Nees in DC,, Prodr., xi,, 470. Justicia 
pectinata Linn., Amoen. Acad., iv., 299 ; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., i., 83. 

Ameni; Hume! Kadamum ; Hume! Akati; Fleming ! 

A universal weed throughout India, Indo-China and Ceylon. 

114. Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees m Wall., PI. As. Ear,, 
hi., 113; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 554. Justicia bicalyculata 
Vahl, Symb., ii., 13 ; Eoxb., Flor. Ind., i., 126. 

Ameni; Hume ! Kadamum ; Fleming ! Kiltan ; Fleming ! 

Tropical Africa, India and Indo-China; not from Malaya or 
Ceylon. A common weed in South India, less common elsewhere. 

Vbebenacej:. 

115. Lippia nodiflora Rich, in Michx, Flor. Bor. Amer., ii., 
15; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 563. Verbena nodijiara Linn., 
Sp. PI. 20; Eoxb., Hort. Beng. 4. 

Akati; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A weed of wet places in all tropical and sub-tropical regions, also 
often met with near tropical sea-shores; not impossibly a bird- 
introduced species. Though enumerated in Roxburgh's Hortus 
Bengalensis, this species is not described by him in the Flora Indica. 

116. Stachytarpheta indica Vahl, Enum., i., 206; Hook, f., 
Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 564. Verbena indica Linn., Syst. Veg. 
(ed. X.), ii., 851; Eoxb., Hort. Beng. 4. 

Anderut; Alcoch ! 

A common garden-plant, readily escaping and becoming wild, 
throughout tropical’America where it is indigenous, and tropical 
Asia where it is probably “ naturalizedonly. Here it is quite 
wild ; it may have come as a weed, but more probably has been 


BOTANY OF THE LOCCADIVES. 


53 


intentionally introduced. As with Lippia nod^ora, Roxburgh includes 
this in the Ilortus Bengalensis, but excludes it from the Flora Indka. 

117. Premna integrifolia Linn., Mantiss. 252 ; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., iv., 574. P. serratifoUa Linn., Mantiss. 253. F, spinosa 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., hi., 77. 

Kadamura ; “ forming thickets,” Hume ! “ very common ; a little 
way inshore,” Fleming ! Kalpeni ; on the shore, Alcock ! Minikoi ; 
coast zone, Fleming ! 

A littoral and sub-littoral species, very abundant on Indian, Indo- 
Chinese, Andamans, Nicobars and Malay coasts. 

118. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn., Fruct., i., 271, t. 57, f. 1 ; 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., hi., 58 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 589. 

Kalp4ni ; plentiful on the coast, Alcock ! 

A littoral species abundant on Indian, Ceylon, Andamans and 
Indo-Chinese coasts. 


LABIATiE. 

119. Ocimum gratissimum Linn., Sp. PI. 1197 ; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., hi., 17 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 608. 

Bitrapar ; growing near the Pir’s tomb, Alcock! Kadamum ; 
Fleming ! Kalpeni ; Alcock ! Minikoi ; Fleming I 

One of the T 2 dsi plants, occasionally cultivated, but generally, 
occurring as a weed of waste places throughout tropical Africa, 
the Mascarene Islands, India, Ceylon and Malaya. It also occurs 
as a weed in America, but there it is probably only an escape 
from cultivation and not an indigenous plant. Here, where 
the people are Mohammedans, the true or sacred Tulsi (^Ocimum 
sanctum') is not found at all, this—the Ram Tulsi —taking its 
place. In Car Nicobar and in Burma, where also one Tulsi is as 
good as another, the people not being Hindus, it is the Gidal 
Tulsi —the Basil ( 0. Basilicum) —that is usually found as a weed 
near native dwellings. 

120. Anisomeles ovata R. Br. in Ait., Hort. Kew. (ed. ii.), ii., 
364 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv., 672. Nepeta indica Linn., Sp. 
PI. 571. Ballota disticha Linn., Mantiss. 83. Ajuga distecha 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., hi., 2. 

Kadamum ; Fleming ! Akati ; Fleming! Minikoi ; Meming ! 

353 


54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, im. 


A weed of roadsides and waste places tliroughont tropical and sub¬ 
tropical South-Eastern Asia. 

121. Leucas aspera Spreng., Syst., ii., 743 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. 
Ind., iv., 690. Phlomis esculenta Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii., 10. 

Ameni ; Hume I Anderut ; Alcock ! Akati ; Fleming ! Kadamum ; 
Fleming ! Kiltan ; Fleming ! 

A weed of cultivation throughout South-Eastern Asia and in the 
Mascarene Islands. 


Incompletse. 

NYCTAGINEiE. 

122. Mirabilis Jalapa Linn., Sp. PI. 177 ; Rosb., Hort. Beng. 
16 ; Watt, Diet., V., 253. The Marvel of Peru. 

Akati; cultivated, Fleming! ]\Iinikoi; cultivated, Fleming ! 

Native of America, but widely cultivated throughout tropical Asia on account 
of the supposed pm’gative properties of its root and as a garden plant. 

123. Boerhaavia repens Linn : Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv, 709. 

VAE. typica. Boerkaavia repens Linn., Sp. PI. 3. 

Akati ; Fleming! Ameni Hume ! 

A weed of fields, waysides and wasteplaces, cosmopolitan in tropical and sub¬ 
tropical coimtries. The more usual form of this species in India (var. pro- 
cumbeus Hook.f, For, Brit. Ind., iv, 709 ; Boerhaavia procumbens, Banks in 
Roxl). Flor. Ind., i, 146) does not appear to occm’ in the Laccadives ; the 
present form is that characteristic of the drier parts of India, of Beluchistan, 
Arabia and North-East Africa. 

VAE. diffusa Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv, 709. B. diffusa Linn., 
Sp. PI. 3. 

Bitrapar ; on the shore, Hume! Anderut ; on the beach, Alcock 1 Kadamum ; 
Fleming ! Minikoi; Meming I 

A littoral plant, cosmopolitan on tropical sea-shores. The sea-shore foim 
differs so markedly in appearance from the usual uiland forms and agrees so well 
with the description of vae, diffusa Hook, f., that it might be convenient to 
restrict the varietal name “ diffusa ” to it alone. It does not, however, deserve 
specific rank, for, as is pointed out in the Fora of British India, it is impossible 
by then morphological characters to draw a fine between the various forms. 
Even if recognised as a species, it could not be dealt with as B. diffusa L inn , 
since the probability is that Liimeus based his descriptions, at least in part, on 
the examination of inland specimens. 

354 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


55 


The “ weed ” has probably been introduced unintentionally by man. The 
“ shore” form very probably owes its introduction to the agency of sea-bu’ds, 
though it may have been introduced by ocean-currents. 

124. Pisonia alba Spanoghe in Linnsea, xv, 342 ; Hook, f., Flor, 
Brit. Ind., iv, 711. 

Bitrapar ; Fleming ! 

A httoral species confined, if Spanoghe’s species be really distinct from all the 
Polynesian and Malayan ones, to the Andamans and Mcobars. The species is 
rare in the Andamans beach forests {Kurz), but it is plentiful on the shores of 
Narcondam and on those of Batti Malv—one of the Nicobar group. The tree 
is only known in India and Ceylon as a cultivated species ; but as it does 
not occiu' on any of the other islands of the group, and as Bitrapar is an 
uninhabited island, the presence of the species in the sea-coast jungle here must be 
independent of human interference. Its fruits may have been introduced by 
birds, smce the glutinous lines along then* angles admirably adapt them for this 
mode of dispersal; but as the majority of the birds that visit Bitra must be 
sea-fowl, it is much more fikely that the species has been introduced by means of 
ocean-cmTents. Though not wild, it is frequently cultivated in Ceylon {e.g., at 
Colombo) near the sea—indeed away from the sea it refuses to grow—and, if the 
tree does not exist iu Malaya, Ceylon, cultivated trees may be supposed to have 
yielded the fruits that have reached the Laccadives. One point, however, against 
the species being confined, as an indigenous tree, to the Andamans is that the 
species has been long cultivated in India and Ceylon, and it is therefore extremely 
unlikely that the plants originally introduced into India came from that group 
of islands, with which, save for a short period in the end of the last centmy, there 
was, tfil thirty years ago, practically no communication. It appears, indeed, as 
Sh- Joseph Hooker suggests, to be little more than a form of the Polynesian 
Pisonia inermis Forst. 

AMARANTACE^. 

125. iLmarantus viridis Liim., Sp. PI. (ed. ii), 1405 ; Ptoxb., Flor. 
Ind., iii, 605 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., iv, 720. 

Muiikoi; Meming ! 

A weed of waste places, cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

126. .Slrua lanata Juss. in Ann. Mus., xi, 131; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., iv, 728. Acliyranthes lanata Linn., Sp. PI. 204 ; Eoxb., Flor. 
Ind., i, 676. 

Bitrapar; Hume! Kalpeni; Alcoclc ! Kadamum; very common, Feming ! 
Akati; Fleming! Muiikoi; common, Fleming ! 


355 


66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol VIII. 


A weed of waste places and also, as here, a comman littoral species throughout 
tropical and subtropical Africa, the Mascarene Islands, Arabia and South-Eastern 
Asia ; here almost without doubt a sea-introduced species. 

127. Achyranthes aspera Linn: Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind,, iv, 730. 

VAE. typica. Achyranthes aspera Linn., Sp. PI. 204 ; Koxb., Elor^ 
Ind., i, 672. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A weed of waste places, cosmopolitian in the tropics. 

VAE. porphyristmhya Hook, f., Elor. Brit. Ind., iv, 730. Achyranthes 
yorphyristachya. Wall., Cat. 6925. 

Bitrapar; Hurrml Bangaro ; Hume! Kalp(ini; Alcoch! KUtan ; Fleming! 
Kadamum ; Fleming ! Akati; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A weedy climber common in the littoral zone of the Indian and Malayan 
coasts ; also in the moist valleys of Sikkim, Chittagong, etc. 

The common weed is only reported from Minikoi, from which island also 
(and from most of the others) comes the usual littoral condition which in habit 
simulates A. Mdentata, Bl., but which has the fimbriate staminodes of A. aspera. 
Yfliile A. aspera is undoubtedly a plant introduced unintentionally by man, 
there is no doubt that here, as often elsewhere, A. porphyristachya is a sea- 
introduced plant. 


POLTaONACEAS. 

128. Polygonum barbatum Linn., Sp. PL, 362 ; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., v., 37. P. rivulare Koenig in Eosb., Flor. Ind., ii, 290. 

Kalpcni; Alcoch ! 

In wet places tlnoughout tropical Asia and Africa. 

PIPEEACEiE. 

129. PiPEE Betle Linn., Sp. PI. 28 ; Eoxb., Flor. Ind., i, 158 ; Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 85. 

Akati; Kiltan ; Kadamum ; Minikoi; in all the islands cultivated and, as 
is the custom generally in Southern India, trained round the trunks and over 
the branches of the Agati {Serslania grandifiorci). “ This plant is an object of 
great care” {Fl&ming), 

Native of Malaya, where, and in the hotter parts of India and Ceylon, it is 
cultivated. 

LAUEINEiE. 

130. Cassytha filiformis Linn., Sp. PI. 35 ; Eoxb., Flor. Ind., ii, 
814 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 188. 

356 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


57 


Kiltan; on Wedelia scandms in the coast zone, Alcock t Eadamum ; on 
Pleurostylia WigUii^ Fleming ! 

A leafless parasite, common on sea-shores, cosmopohtan in the tropics. 

131. Hernandia peltata Meissn. in DO., Prodr., xv., pt. i, 263 ; 
Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 188. Hernandia mgera Gaertn., Fruct., i., 193, 
t. 40, f. 3 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii, 577, nee Linn. 

Korat; Hume! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A httoral species extending from the Mascarene Islands and Eastern Africa 
to Ceylon, the Andamans, Malap, Australia and Polynesia; like OcTirosia 
lorhonica this does not occur on the coast of India, though it is found as far 
north as Great Coco on the west and as Mergui on the east of the Andaman Sea. 

Meissner {DC. Prodr., xv, pt. 1, 262—264) omits to quote, and the Flora of 
British India (v, 188) does not cite Roxburgh’s account of Hernandia ovigera 
{Flor. Ind., iii, 577-578), which his own diagnosis clearly shows to be a species 
different from Hernandia ovigera, Linn. {Amoen. Ac., iv, 125), founded on 
Rumf’s flgure {Herh. Amloin., iii, 193, t. 123) of Arlor ovigera. Roxburgh 
notes the discrepancies, and explains them by depreciating Rumf’s drawing. 
In reahty, however, Roxbiu'gh’s description is a most vivid and accm’ate one, 
made from hving specimens of the species named by Meissner {DC. Prodr., xv, 
pt. i, 263), Hernandia peltata. Roxbm’gh cites Gaertner’s figme {Fruct. i, 193, 
t. 40, f. 3) as a “ very accurate” delineation of the fruit of this tree—an exceed¬ 
ingly just remark, which, however, Meissner has overlooked, for he quotes 
Gaertner’s description and figm'e as referring to Lhmaeus’ species, though they 
differ very materially from both Rumf’s figure and M eissner’s own description 
of the fruit of Hernandia ovigera. 

Hernandia peltata, the species now under review, is a purely old-world plant, 
which has been treated by Linnaeus and, with the exceptions of Gaertner and 
Roxburgh, by aU botanists subsequent to Lhmaeus till the appearance of 
Meissner’s treatise (1864) as conspecific with the American Hernandia sonora; 
even now Sir J. D. Hooker {Mor. Brit. Ind., v, 189) suspects that H. peltata 
is no more than a variety of H. sonora. And the basis of the differentiation by 
both Gaertner and Roxbm’gh of the present plant from H. sonora does not he in 
the differences between the two plants that Meissner has pointed out, but in the 
fact that Lhmaeus included under H. sonora not merely the American tree to 
which Meissner would restrict that name, as well as the Ceylon tree, which is 
undoubtedly H. peltata, but also—though doubtfully and with the remark “ sed 
fructus alienus" {Amcen. Ac., iv, 117)—the tree figm-ed by Rumf {Herl. Amloin., 
ii, 257, t. 85) under the name Arlor regis. Beheving, apparently, that Rumf’s 
Arlor regis was, as Linnaeus thought, a Hernandia—^ behef perhaps partly just— 
but realising that it could scarcely be the tree he had before him, and seeing that 

357 


58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


it agreed so thoroughly with the figure and description of H. ovigera given by 
Gaertner, Eoxburgh, not having in his possession specimens of the true H. ovigera^ 
followed Gaertner in bestowing that name on this species. This com’se was hardly 
just to Emnf if Gaertner and Eoxbm’gh believed Eumf’s figure to be correct, 
hardly just to themselves if they had any grounds for supposing it to be erro¬ 
neous. It now appears that Emnf’s figure is wonderfully rehable, for, besides his 
figm’e from a tree iu Amboina, there are before the writer specimens of un¬ 
doubtedly this species from Java (Zollinger n. 2861, which, however, ZoUinger 
liimself has identified with H, sonord) and specimens recently collected by the 
officers of the “ Egeria ” in Christmas Island, where E. ovigera occm’S 
(Hemsl., Journ. Linn. Soc., xxv, 857) on the summit, elevation about 1,200 feet, 
a rather remarkable fact, since, according to Eumf, it occurs, like the other 
Hernandias, “ semper in arenoso solo circa litoraN^ 

As has been remarked, the belief of Linnaeus, and of Eoxbm-gh that Eumf s 
Arlor regis is a Eernandia is probably partly justified, for it is possible, from his 
account of the habitat of his tree—“ ocairrit tarn in litare inter leves ac humiles 
^‘silvas ” (quite the situation affected by Eernandiapeltata) “ guam in mojitibus 
“ et altioribus silvis ” (where to find E. peltata would be somewhat surprising) — 
that Eumf has iuoluded two trees in his description. His figm’e, moreover, bears 
out this, for some of the leaves are without, while others exhibit, a pan’ of glands 
where the petiole joins the leaf. The figm’e as a whole, however, suggests at once, 
as Lamarck {Encyc. Metli., iii, 123) a century ago pointed out, a Euphorbiaceous 
plant, while Rumf’s description of the fruit is altogether suitable to that of a 
species of this order. The first authors to recognise Rumf’s Arbor regis, 
however, were Teysmann and Binnendyk, who described it as Capellmia moluccana 
{Nat. Tijds. Ned. Ind., xxix, 239), founding a new genus to accommodate it; as, 
however, Capellmia does not differ generically from Endospermum, the tree has 
been re-described by Beccari as Endospermum moluccmum {Malesia, ii, 38) in his 
treatise Piawfe Ospitatrici, where another species from Hew Guinea {Endospermum 
formicarum Becc., Malesia, ii, 44, t. 2) is described, which shares with Eumf’s 
tree the character of sheltering a species of ant in its hollowed stems and branches. 
Teysmann and Binnendyk described their species from trees grown in the Botanic 
Garden at Buitenzorg ; Beccari does not mention the habitat of the Hew 

* Two parallel instances known to the writer of littoral species ascending to a con¬ 
siderable height are met with in N arcondam, where MorincLa Iracteata ascends to 2,300 
feet and in Barren Island, where Terminalia Catappa ascends 1,100 feet. The expla¬ 
nation of all three cases is doubtless the same ; these “ littoral” species being amongst the 
first to appear on the respective islands were able to spread unchecked from the shore to 
the summit of their peaks, and the invasion of inland species has not subsequently 
been sufficiently great to compel them to retire completely from the unusual localities 
they had at first invaded. 

358 




59 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 

Guinea species; in the Calcutta Herbarium there are, however, examples 
of another closely related speeies, with the same hollow branches, coUected in. 
Sumatra by H. 0. Forbes, which were obtained on the volcano of Kaba at 3,500 
feet elevation. Tliis fact, therefore, does not oppose, if it does not corroborate*, the 
surmise that Emnf under ArUr regis has included two trees, one found only on 
the coast {Hemandia peltata) and one found inland and on the mountams 
{Endosp&rmum moliumnum). 

EUPHOEBIACEiE. 

132. Euphorbia Atoto Forst., Prodr. n. 207; Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., v, 248. 

Ameni; Hume ! 

A httoral species ; seashores of India, Malaya, H. Australia and Polynesia. 

133. Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn., Hort. Chff. 198 ; Hook, f., 

Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 249. E. parviflora Linn., Syst. Veg. (ed. x), ii, 1047 • 
Roxb., Flor. Ind., ii,, 472. 

Kadamum ; Fleming ! Kiltan ; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming / 

A weed of waste places and fields, almost cosmopolitan ; not ocemring in 
Austraha or iu Polynesia. 

134. Euphorbia pilulifera Linn., Amoen. Acad., iii, 114; Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 250. E. hirta Linn. Amoen. Acad., hi, 114 ; Roxb 
Flor. Ind., ii. 472. 

Anderut; AlcocJc! Kadamum ; Hume! Fleming! Kiltan ; AlcocTc! Flming ! 
Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A weed of cultivation, cosmopohtan in tropical and subtropical countries. 

135. Euphorbia thymifolia Binm., Flor. Ind. 2 ; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., ii, 473 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 252. 

Minikoi; Fleming! 

A weed almost cosmopohtan in tropical countries, not found in Austraha. 

136. Phtllaothus Emblica Linn., Sp. PI. 982 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., hi, 
671 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., V, 289. Th.Q Amla. 

Ameni; cultivated, Hume. 

Distributed, wild or cultivated, throughout South-Eastern Asia; here an in- 
tentionahy introduced plant. 

137. Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn., Sp. PI. 982 ; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., hi, 654 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 292. P. olcardatus Whld., 
Enum. Hort. Berol, Supph, 65 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., hi, 656. 

Ameni ; Hume! Anderut; AlcocJc! Bitrapar ; Fleming! Khtan ; Fleming ! 
Kadamum ; Fleming! Minikoi; Fleming! 

A weed of dry places and fields throughout tropieal Airioa, Asia and Aus¬ 
traha, probably unintentionahy introduced by man even into the island of 
Bitra, which, though not inhabited, is regularly visited 


359 


GO JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol VIII. 

138. Phyllanthus Urinaria Linn., Sp. PL 982 ; Poxb., Flor. 
•Ind., iii, 660 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 293. 

Kalpeni; McoUi 1 Minikoi; Fleming / 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed. 

139. Phyllantlius Niruri Linn., Sp. PI. 981 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
iii, 659 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 298. 

Andemt; Alcocl ! Akati ; Fleming / Kadammn ; Fleming 1 Kilbm ; 
Fleming! Minikoi; Flming I 

A weed of cultivation almost cosmopolitan in the tropics, not occurring in 
Australia. 

140. Phyllanthus rotundifolius Klein in Willd., Sp. PI., iv, 

584 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 299. 

Kntan ; Fleming ! 

A weed of cultivation distributed throughout tropical Africa, Arabia, 
Southern India and Ceylon. 

141. Phyllanthus distichus Muell.-Arg. in DO., Prodr., xv, pt. ii, 
413 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 304. P. longifolitis Jacq., Hort. Schoenb., 

ii, 36, f. 194 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii, 672. Cicca disticTia Linn., Mantiss. 124. 
Minikoi; cultivated, Flemmg. 

In gardens throughout Malaya, India and the Mascarene Islands. 

142. Claoxylon IVLercurialis Thwaites, Enura. 271 ; Hook, f., 

Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 412. Tragia M&rcwialis Linn., Sp. PI. (ed. ii) 1391 
{in parte) ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii, 576. 3Iercwrialis alternifolia Desv. in 
Land?, Encyc. Meth., iv, 120. Acalypha Mercwialis A. Juss., Euphorb. 
Tent. 46. Miaroeocm Mercurialis Benth. in Hook., Niger Flora 503. 
Microstachys mercurialis Dalz. and Gibs., Bomb. Flor. 227. 

Akati; Fleming ! Bitrapar ; Fleming! Kadamum ; Fleming! Khtan ; 
Fleming I Minik oi; Fleming / 

A tropical weed distributed throughout Africa, Arabia and India ; there are 
also specimens at Calcutta from the Malay Peninsula. Mercurialis aUernifoUa 
Desv. is not the same plant as Mercurialis cdternijolia Hochst., Un. It.^ which 
is an Acalypha (A. Hochstetteri Muell.-Argi). 

143. Acalypha indica Linn., Sp. PI. 1003 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 

iii, 675 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v., 416. 

Akati; Fleming I Kadamum ; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming I 
A weed of cultivation common in tropical Africa and S.-E. Asia. 

144. Acalypha fallax MueU.-Arg. in Linneea, xxxiv, 43 ; Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 416. A. indica Prain, Laccad. List. 7, nec Linn. 

Anderut ; Alcoch! Alsati; Fleming / Minikoi ; Fleming ! 

A weed of cultivation confined to South-Eastern Asia. 

360 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


61 


145. Eicmus COMMUNIS Linn., Sp. PI. 1007 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii, 
689 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v., 457. The Castor-oil Plant ; vernac. 
“ undel ” (BoUnson), 

Kiltan; cultivated, Hume, Fleming! Andemt; cultivated, Alcock. Kadammn; 
Fleming! Ameni; cultivated for its oil, BAbinson. Bitrapar ; growing near 
the centre of the island, Fleming! Minikoi; cultivated and a very common 
escape, Fleming! 

A native of Africa, cultivated generally in the tropics for its oil, but 
readily escaping and becoming natm-alised, its presence in the uninhabited island 
of Bitra being an excellent mstauce of the readiness with which it runs wild. It 
is noteworthy that it was not present m Bitra when Mr. Hume visited that 
island in 1875., 

UUTICACEJi:. 

146. Ficus bengalensis Linn., Hort. Chff. 471, n. 4 ; King in Hook, 
f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 499. F. indica Linn., Amoen. Acad. (ed. iii), i, 27, n. 
6; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii, 539. The Banyan. 

Ameni; planted, Hume. Kadamum ; four trees seen in the ueighbomLood 
of some deserted huts, from their arrangement in a row evidently planted, 
Fleming. Minikoi; planted, Fleming. 

Planted generally throughout India, wild on the lower slopes of the Himalayas 
and of the Deccan lulls. 

147. Ficus retusa Liim., Mantiss. 129 ; King in Hook, f., Flor. 
Brit. Ind., v, 511. F. Benjamina Willd., Sp. PI., iv, 1143 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., 
iii, 550 nec Linn. 

VAE. nitida King, Ficus, 50 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Lid., v,. 511.. 

F. nitida Thunbg, Ficus 14. 

Minikoi; Fleming! 

A large tree common throughout Eastern and South-Eastern Asia and 
extending to New Caledonia. Mr. Fleming does not note if the tree be planted 
in Minikoi. It is possible that it may be, but as its figs are a favomite food 
with many of the migratory fruit-pigeons, there is no reason why it should not 
be a “ wild ” bud-introduced species. 

148. Aetocaepus mciSA Forst., PI. Escul. 23 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., iii, 
527 ; Hook, f., Flor. Brit. Ind., v, 539 ; Watt, Diet., i, 330. The Bread- 
Fruit Tree. 

Kiltan ; does not thrive well, Bolinson ; not much appreciated, Hume ; 
Alcock. Ameni; grows most luxmiantly, BoUnson, Hume. Anderut; culti¬ 
vated largely, Alcock. Akati; only one tree, in a garden, Fleming ! Minikoi; 
cultivated, Fleming ! 


,361 


62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


A native of Polynesia and Eastern Malaya, occasionally cultivated in the 
hotter parts of India. The Laccadive Archipelago must be near the northern 
limit of its successful cultivation, a fact that is corroborated by the evidence 
given above of the want of success, and the small extent of its cultivation in 
important islands hke Kiltan and Akati. 

149. Aetocaepus integeifolia Linn, f., Suppl. 412; Eoxb., Flor. 
Ind., iii, 522 ; Hook, f., Mor. Brit. Ind., v, 541 ; Watt, Diet., i, 330. The 
Jacli-fnuit. 

Anderut; a stately-looking tree, with dark green foliage not unlike the 
broad-leafed ehn. Wood. 

Dr. King, to whose attention the passage in Lieut. Wood’s paper has been 
brought, suggests that the notice refers most probably to the Jack. The tree is 
generally cultivated throughout the hotter parts of India and Indo-Chma and 
tliroughout Malaya ; it is said by Beddome to be truly wild in the Western 
Ghats above the Malabar Coast. That its cultivation should not have spread 
in the Laccadives is not at aU surprising; doubtless the islanders generally view 
the Jack, as those of Kiltan, according to Mr. Hume {Stray FeaiTm's, iv, 437), 
regard the Bread-fruit : trees that are aU very well in then- way, but consider¬ 
ing that, instead of fruiting aU the year round hke the coco-nut, they ah flower 
and fruit together, and then fruiting season lasts at the outside only two months 
out of twelve, they are hardly worth the trouble of propagating. 

150. Fouzolzia indica Gaud. : Wedd. in DO. Prodr., xvi, pt. i, 220 ; 
Hook, f., Plor. Brit. Ind., v, 581. TJrtica suffruticosa Koxb., Plor. Ind., hi, 
584. 

VAE. typica. P. indica Gaud, in Ikeycinet, Voy., Bot. 503. 

Kalp4ni; AlcocTc! Kiltan; Flaming ! Akati; Fleming ! Kadamum ; Fleming! 
Minikoi; Fleming I 

A weed of cultivation common throughout tropical and subtropical Eastern 
and South-Eastern Asia. 

VAE. alienata Wedd. in DO. Prodr., xvi, pt. i, 221. P. alienata Gaud. 
in Freycinet, Voy., Bot. 503. 

' ' Minikoi; Fleming f 

A common Indian form of the same weed. 

Monocotyledones. 

SCITAMESTE^. 

151. Musa Sapientum Linn., Syst. Yeg. (ed. x), ii, 1303 ; Ptoxb., Flor. 
Ind., i, 663 ; Watt, Diet, v, 290. The Plantain. 

Anderut; cultivated. Wood. Ameni; cultivated, Rodinson, Kiltau ; cultivated, 
Hume. Kadamum ; four plants seen near some deserted huts, evidently planted, 
Fleming. Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming. 

362 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


63 


Amaryllide^. 

152. Pancratium zeylanicum Linn., Sp. PI. 290 ; Eoxb., Flor. 
ind., ii, 124 ; Hook, f., Ilor. Brit. Ind., vi, 285. 

Minikoi; Fleming, 

India, Ceylon, Malaya. 

153. Agave vivipara Linn., Sp. PI. 323. A. Cantula Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., ii, 167 ; Watt, Diet., i, 143. The Bastard American Aloe. 

Anderut; cultivated, AlcoeJe. Kiltan ; introduced from the mainland and 
grows well, Fleming. 

A native of America, cultivated and naturalised m most warm countries. 

Taccacil®. 

154. Tacca pinnatifida Porst., Plant. Escul. 59 ; Eoxb., Flor. Lid., ii, 
172. The South-Sea Taro ; vernac. “ teerny,” Robinson. 

Anderut; cultivated, Wood^ Alcock. Chitlac ; cultivated, Robinson, Akati; 
cultivated, Fleming! Mniikoi; cultivated, Fleming ! 

A littoral species common on South-Eastern Asiatic and Polynesian coasts, 
but also extending inland either as a wild or cultivated species. Though a 
very common species on the Andaman coasts, the plant is here only found as a 
cultivated one. 


DiOSCOREACEiB. 

155. Pioscorea bulbifera Linn., Sp. PI. 1033. Wild Yam, 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A common species in a wild state throughout India, Indo-China, and Malaya; 
possibly couspechic with the next. Mr. Fleming does not note if it is a 
cultivated or a wild species. It is sometimes cultivated, and both the root and 
leaf-tubers are eaten. The latter are also in Ceylon used as a fish-bait. 

156. Dioscorea sativa Linn., Sp. PI. 1033; Watt, Diet., iii, 133. The' 
Garden Yam. 

Ameni ; cultivated, Robinson, Hume. Cultivated generally in the tropics, 
native country unknown. There are no speciinens either in Mr. Hmne’s or 
in Dr. Alcock’s collection, and it is, therefore, not impossible that it is not 
D. sativa but D, bulbijera that is grown in 'Ameni. 

Liliace^. 

157. €S-loriosa superba Lum., Sp. PI. 305 ; Eoxb., Flor. Ind., ii, 143. 

Anderut; plentiful, Alcock ! 

Wild throughout South-Eastern Asia, but also often cultivated as an orna¬ 
mental plant, and on account of the poisonous properties reputed to reside in its 

363 



64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


roots. It is not cultivated, however, in Anderat, and as it is a common littoral 
species throughout the Andamans and Nicobars, it is here quite possibly a sea- 
introduced species. 

COMMELYNE^. 

158. Aneilema ovalifolium Hook, f., ex 0. B. Clarke in DO. 
Monogr. Phan., iii, 218. 

Minikoi; Fleming! 

A herbaceous weed of jungles and grassy places confined to Southern India. 

159. Cyanotis cristata Poem. & Schult., Syst., vii, 1150. Comme- 
lina cristata Linn., Sp. PI. 42. Tradescantia imhricata Eoxb., Flor. Ind., 
ii, 120. 

Kadamum ; Fleming I KUtan ; m grass along with Leucas aspera, Flemmg ! 
Minikoi; on ground and also epiphytic on Cocos nmijera, Fleming ! 

A weed of grassy places in the Mascarene Islands, India and Malaya. 

Palmed. 

160. Aeeca Catechu Lmn., Sp. PI. 1189 ; Eoxb., Flor. Ind., iii, 615 ; 
Watt, Diet., i, 291. The Betel-nut Palm. 

Ameni; cultivated, RoUnson, Hume. Anderut; cultivated. Wood, AlcocTc. 
ICltau ; does not thrive, RoUnson. Minikoi ; cultivated, Fleming. 

Cultivated in tropical countries. 

161. Cocos nucifera Lmn., Sp. PI. 1188; Eoxb., Flor. Iiid., iii, 614. 
The Coco-nut Palm. 

Ameni; RoUnson, Hume. Anderut ; Wood, AlcocTc. Akati; Fleming. 
Bangaro ; Hume. Bitrapar ; RoUnsoji, Hume. Chitlac ; of slow growth and 
not productive, RoUnson. Kadamum ; RoUnson, Hume, Fleming. Kalpeni, 
AlcocTc. Kiltan ; RoUnson, Hume, AlcocTc, Fleming. Koivati; Hume. Minikoi ; 
Fleming. 

Lieut. Wood’s list gives the coco-nut as present on all the islands except 
Kalpeni Feti and Akati Feti, which are mentioned as mere sand-banks, but the 
sand-banfe of PirmaUa and Pitti and the coral islets on Cherbaniani and—if, 
indeed, there are islets there—on Cheriapani reefs are quite devoid of vegetation 
and if visited at aU by the islanders are visited for the purposes of fisliing or egg¬ 
collecting, not for coco-nuts and coir. Bitra, however, which is uninhabited, has 
coco-nuts and is visited on account of these by people from the northern islands. 
The coco-nuts there, from their position as described by Eobinson and Hume 
and from the accounts of the people, are evidently only planted. Bangaro and 
(apparently) Tangaro, two uninhabited islands on the Akati reef, have coco-nuts 
clearly, from Hume’s account of the former, sea-introduced and not planted. 
Whether there are coco-nuts on Suheli is not clear j accordmg to Wood’s list, 
364 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


65 


they occur, but the people misinformed him concerning so many of the other 
islands, that till there is direct evidence, the point must remain doubtful. 

The question whether the appearance of the coco-nut in this archipelago 
preceded that of man, or if the first settlers there did not rather take the 
coco-nut with them, is one that it is somewhat difficult to answer. The species 
is pretty certainly indigenous in the Malay countries and, perhaps, Polynesia, 
and seems to have spread thence to India, the Mascarene Islands and 
Africa. It occurs also in America, but the question—which has been seriously 
discussed—as to whether it found its way to the New World from the Old or vice 
versa, has not yet been satisfactorily answered. The introduction of the coco¬ 
nut into Ceylon at ah events has been in aU probability a dehberate act, and, as 
M. de Candolle reminds us {Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 435), at a period so 
recent as to be almost historical. That the geographical extension of the tree is 
largely due to human agency does not admit of question, but that it has been in 
every place where it occurs intentionally introduced, it is neither possible nor 
necessary to beheve. Its fruits are highly capable of ocean-distribution and form 
a constant featime of ocean-drifts on tropical shores, and it is one of the earliest 
species to appear on newly emerged coral or volcanic tropical islands. 

As regards the Laccadives, if man did not first settle there on account of 
coco-nut trees being aheady present, it is difficult to conceive what he went 
there for ; the sirnface is not adequate, nor are the conditions favourable for 
extensive cereal or pulse cultivation, and as for a certain period of the year 
the people have to take their boats away from the islands to places of safety on the 
Malabar Coast, it is clear that fishing could never have been a general or con¬ 
stant industry among them. On the other hand, the coco-nut is m the strictest 
sense a cultivated species on all the inhabited islands, and is a planted species 
even in Bitra, which, on account of its want of a water-supply, is only a visited 
island ; and though in Bangaro it is not cultivated or planted, this island may 
have only been stocked by nuts from Akati, the main island on the same atoll 
subsequently to a deliberate introduction of the species into Akati itself. 

Still the state of affaus in Bangdro proves that the tree here can be, at 
least locally, sea-dispersed ; and taking into account the uninviting appear¬ 
ance that the islands must offer, were they destitute of coco-nuts, one cannot 
but think it probable that the species reached the archipelago independently 
of human agency and prior to human settlement, while the necessity for 
constant renewal and, as the population increased, for planting to the greatest 
advantage, has insured that now in all the inhabited islands none but cultivated 
trees are to be found. 

In most of the islands it is deemed necessary to raise the seedling coco-nuts 
with care and attention till they are a year old, when they are transplanted and 

365 


66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol VIII. 

watered for a few weeks till they become firmly established. After this the 
young trees are left entirely to themselves, and are neither watered nor manured ; 
they come into bearing in Kiltan in from 8 to 10 years, and produce fruit so 
vigorously and plentifully that it is sometimes necessary to support the luxuriant 
growth of nuts artificially *; in this island, moreover, the preliminary attention 
to seedlings is not required. 

In some of the other islands, as in Chitlac, where the soil is much poorer, the 
trees do not come into bearing tid they are 15 to 20 years old, each tree at best 
producing only about 50 nuts per annum as against 80 to 85 nuts a year in 
Kiltan. In Kadamum, too, backward though the cultivation in that island is, 
the average per annum is about 80 nuts per tree ; in Ameni, where the 
cultivation is almost as extensive as in Kiltan, the average is only about 60 
nuts a year from each tree. These figm’es are given by Kobinson, after care¬ 
ful and prolonged enquiry, as representing the yield in 1844 and 1845 ; Hume 
gives the average aU over for the fom’ British islands in 1875 at 80 nuts per 
tree per amium \—doubtless rather a high general estimate, though probably 
representing the yield of what the people in any ef the islands would themselves 
consider a good tree. Kobinson thinks that 60 to 70 nuts would be a pretty 
fan’ general average for the whole of these islands, and this is likely to be nearer 
the truth than the higher estimate. The islanders try to plant only first class 
trees, and they aun at obtaining such as will come into full bearing in about 
10 years, throwing out every month after that age is reached a fruiting-spike 
bearing 15 to 20 nuts, and so yielding 180 to 250 nuts a year, and going on 
bearing at tliis rate till they are 60 years old. They often do go on bearing, it 
is said, till they are 70 or 80 years of age, and some are beheved by the people 
to be more than a centm-y old. But a tree that produces a fruiting-spike every 
month is quite a rarity ; 9 to 10 fruiting branches are aU that can be hoped for 
in twelve months, and from accidents and casualties among the nuts, 8 to 10 
a spike is a very high average of nuts. Indeed, it is only trees with an eastern 
exposure and trees growing in the Teat in the centre of the islands that yielJ 
so highly ; those with a south-westerly exposm’e or those on the drier parts of 
the best islands yield as poorly as those of Chitlac, where the conditions, as a 
whole, are unfavomable. 

There is very httle exportation of coco-nuts from the islands, much the 
greater portion of the crop being required for home consumption. As, more¬ 
over, the great product of the islands is con, not coco-nuts, an immense propor¬ 
tion of the crop is gathered before the nuts are perfectly ripe and before the 
kernel is in the best condition for yielding oil. If allowed to remain on the 

* Robinson, Madras Journal, n. s, xiv, 24. 

t “ Stray Feathers,” iv, 410. 

366 




BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


G7 


tree for twelve or thirteen months, which is the time required for perfect 
ripenmg, the hnsk becomes hard and woody and the con* difficult to separate 
from the woody particles, requh-ing longer soaldng in its preparation, which 
darkens its colour and spoils it for the market ; hehig harder and coarser, too, 
it becomes, though not weaker than the best cob ought to he, much more diffi¬ 
cult to twist. If, on the other hand, the nuts are gathered too soon, the coir 
obtained, though excellent in colour and easy to manipulate, is too weak for 
yam, though quite good for minor purposes, such as a stuffing material for 
mattresses. 

The proper age of nuts for coir-making is ten months ; at the end of the 
tenth month they are cut and husked, the husks being thrown into soaking-pits, 
where they are left for a year. These soaking-pits are simply holes in the sand 
on the lagoon-shore of the various islands, in which the husks are biuied and 
covered over by heaps of coral-blocks to protect them from the ripple of the 
waves. After twelve months’ soaking the husks are taken from the pits and the 
coh is separated from the refuse of the husk by heating. If taken out earlier, it 
is very difficult to rid the coir of impurities and woody particles; if left longer, 
the fibre is found to be weakened. In Ameni, where, as has been said, the 
island occupies the whole lagoon-space, and there is, therefore, no protected 
seashore suitable for coir-soaking, the husks have to be bmied in pits dug 
tln'ough the coral-crast within the body of the island. The cob is here, there¬ 
fore, soaked in fresh, instead of salt water, one result of which is that the Ameni 
cob is weaker than that produced in the other islands ; this is, no doubt, the 
result of the action of some of the products of decomposition in the water of 
these tanks. A further effect of this method of soaking is a discoloiu-ation of the 
fibre, for the water in the tanks never being changed becomes foul and dark- 
colom’ed by the decaying vegetable matter, and imparts this tinge to the cob. 
The two effects taken together, or perhaps rather the second, used by the buyer 
as an index of the first, renders Ameni coir a less marketable product than 
the cob of the other islands and reduces it to the level of most of the cob 
manufactured on the Malabar Coast itself, which is practically all made in this 
way, protected seashores on which to bm-y the husks being exceedingly rare 
except within the lagoons of coral islands. 

In separating the cob after the beating by sticks to break up the adhesion and 
remove impmities, the coir is hand-rubbed, chiefly by the women, to remove the 
woody tissue between the fibres. It is then rolled into loose pads as thick as 
one’s finger by the palms of the hands before being twisted mto yam, of which 
two strands are made at once.* 

* J. Shortt, F.L.S. ; Monograph of the Coco-nnt-palm, p. 16, Madras, 1888. 

367 




68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


The yield of fibre is estimated by Robinson at one pound of coir from each 
10 nuts, giving 35 fathoms of yam. He adds* that “ 2 lbs. of such yarn, 
“ measuring from 70 to 75 fathoms, are made up into soodies, of which there are 
“ fourteen to a bundle, averaging about a maiuid of 28 lbs. A Mangalore candy 
“ of 560 lbs. will, therefore, be the produce of 5,600 nuts, and should contain 
“ about 20,000 fathoms of yarn.” 

In contrast with this yield, Robinson mentions that it takes only tliree of the 
large coarse coast nuts to yield a pound of com, but that this coir will only 
produce 22 fathoms. A ton of Laccadive coir will thus produce 80,000 fathoms 
of yarn as against 50,000 yielded by a ton of Malabar com. 

By Mr. Robinson’s figimes, it will take over 20,000 nuts (22,400) to yield a 
ton of coir, which should produce 784,000 fathoms of yam. Mr. Hume (Stray 
Feathers, iv, 440) says it takes about 30,000 nuts to yield a ton of com. 

It is clear from what has been w’ritten regarding the Laccadives that they 
yield by far the best coir produced in India, and it will be equally evident from 
what has been said here that their superiority lies altogether in the facilities for 
sea-soaking offered by their lagoons. Yet from all the information that a 
consultation of the ordinary trade retmiis will yield, an enqumer into them 
might, as Watt remarks,! conclude that the Laccadives export no com. In trade 
retimis the Laccadive com from British Islands is given along with that from 
the Malabar Coast, and in European markets the best Malabar or Indian coir 
is spoken of as Cochin com. As a matter of fact, httle coir comes from Cochiu, 
and it does not present any features peculiar to itself or superior to those of com 
from other parts of Malabar. What the Em’opean merchant means by Cochin 
coir is pretty certainly Laccadive coir. Even when the coir is known to be from 
theLaccadives,some misunderstanding is produced by its bemg spoken of asEaltan 
coir or Ameni coir. As a matter of fact, Kiltan com has not quite the local 
reputation of either Chitlac or Kadamum coir, whereas Ameni coir is distmctly 
inferior to that produced in any of the other British islands. The application of 
the term Ameni com to the best quafities arises from two cmcumstances—the fact 
that the island of Ameni is one of the largest and often gives its name Amendivi 
to the whole group, and that, till quite recently, the lower caste people of 
Kadamum, where excellent coir is produced, were in some degree subject to 
their higher caste neighboims of Am6ui, and were compelled to ship their 
produce to the mainland in Ameni boats. 

Besides coir manufacture, a certain amount of coarse sugar (jaggery) manm 
facture is carried on, not at all extensively, however, in the British islands, since 


* Eobinson, Madras Journal, n. s., xiv, 16. 
t Diet. Econom. Products of India, ii, 421. 


368 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


GO 


the higher prices given for their coir render its manufacture more profitable 
to the people. In the Cannanore Islands, where coir is under monopoly and the 
Cannanore Raj gives much poorer prices for that article than the inhabitants of 
the British islands obtain, large quantities of are produced both for 

home consiunption and for export to the people on the British islands, the 
chief islands in which it is manufactured being, according to Robinson, those 
of Anderut and Korati. 

Paj^idane^. 

162. Fandanus odoratissimus Linn, f,, Suppl. 424 ; Roxb., Ilor. 
Ind., iii, 7.S8 ; Balf. f.. Jour. Linn. Soc., xvii, 54. 

Bangaro ; abundant, Hume. Kadamum ; very abundant, Hume. Ameni; 
Hume. Eoltan ; only a few plants, Hume. Ealpeni ; Alcoch. Minikoi; Fle¬ 
ming ! a regular sea-fence of this plant smTounds the island, Hamilton. 

A littoral species extending from the Indian Coasts to Malaya, Australia 
and Polynesia. 

In the Laccadive Islands proper there is not, in densely peopled and carefully 
planted islands like Ealt^n, more than the merest remnant of a Fandanus sea-fence 
left, though in uninhabited islands Kke Bangaro and in partially occupied ones 
like Kadamum, it is well represented. But, curiously enough, it is quite absent 
from the uniuhabited island of Bitra, where also Cocos nucifera does not occur as 
a littoral and sea-introduced species. In Minikoi, however, where the island is 
fully occupied and carefully planted, the Fandanus sea-fence has been allowed to 
remain as a belt all round the island. This belt of jungle harboius an immense 
number of rats {Mus rattus vae. rufescens)*, which here, as in the other islands, 
prove very destructive to the coco-nut crop. Captain Wentworth Hamilton, 
Port Officer of Gopalpiu, who commanded the S. S. ’■^Martha Heathcote^’’ 
clm’ing a recent official visit to Minikoi, informed the writer in 1889 that 
the disturbances which led to the visit arose out of a Government order 
to cut down this jungle and, by removing their shelter, to render possible 
a systematic attempt to exterminate the rats. The populace objected most 
strongly to the order, on the ground that this belt of jungle is the abode of 
evil spirits that would be certain, were their domain invaded, to retaliate by 
bringing misfortune on the island. Minikoi, as has been akeady said, though 
Laccadive as to political connection, and as much Laccadive as Maidive as 
to situation, has a Maidive population ; there is no evidence of superstition 
so gross among the MappHa population of the other -Laccadives ; at all 
events, they do not appear to have any scruples about clearing away the Fan¬ 
danus belt. 


♦ Hume, “ Stray Feathers,” iv, 433. 


1G9 



70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 

Aroide^. 

163. Colocasia antiquorum Schott: Engler in DO., Monogr. 
Phauerog., ii, 491. 

VAE. typica. G. antiquorum Schott, Meletem. i, 18. Arum Colocasia 
Linn., Sp. PI. 965 ; Koxb., Plor. Ind., iii, 494. The Kachu or 
Indian Taro. 

Ameni; cultivated, Hume. Anderut; cultivated, Alcoch. Kalpeni; both 
cultivated and wild, Alcoch! Kiltan; wild, Fleming. Eadamum ; wild, 
Fleming. Akati; wild, Fleming. Minikoi; wild, FUming. 

A native of India, cultivated in nearly ah tropical and subtropical countries. 
There is httle doubt that this has been intentionally introduced ; it receives, 
however, slight attention in any of the islands, and in nearly everyone of them 
it has established itself as a weed. 

Cyperace^, 

164. Cyperus hyalinus Vahl, Enum., ii, 829; Clarke, Ind. 
Cyperus 46. 

Eadamum ; Fleming I 
A very rare South Indian weed. 

165. Cyperus polystachyus Eottb., Descr. et Ic. 39, t. 11, f. 1 ; 

Roxb., Elor. Ind., i, 193 ; Olarke, Ind. Cyperus 51. 

Minikoi; Fleming! 

A cosmopolitan tropical and subtropical weed, especially in islands and on 
sea-shores. 

166. Cyperus compressus Linn., Sp. PI. 46 ; Roxb., Elor. Ind., 

i, 194 ; Clarke, Ind. Cyperus 97. 

Ealpeni; Alcoch! 

A cosmopolitan tropical weed. 

167. Cyperus pachyrrhizus Eees ex, Boeck. in Linn^a, xxxv, 
545 ; Olarke, Ind. Cyperus 111. 

Bitrapar ; Hurm! Fleming ! Eadamum ; Fleming ! Bangaro ; Hume ! 

A littoral species, confined to the coasts of India. Mr. Clarke, however, in 
a letter to the writer, in which he has kindly criticised the former Laccadive 
List, states that in Dr. Trimen’s opinion the purely maritime G. pachyrrhizus 
cannot be specifically distinguished from C. conglomeratus (Rottb., Descr. et 
Ic., 21, t. 15, f. 7 ; Clarke, Ind. Cyperus, 112), a plant occurring in the desert 
of North-East Africa and South-West Asia (Nubia, Arabia, Syria, Socotra, 
Bcluchistan). 

168. Cyperus pennatus Lamk in Poir., Encyc. Meth., vii, 240. 
Clarke, Ind. Cy^ierus 194. 

370 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


71 


Aq derat; AlcocJc! Kalpeni; Alcoclc! Akati; Fl&ming! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A littoral and estuarine species, extending from the Mascareue Islands to 
India, Malaya and ISTorth Australia. 

169. Cyperus dubius Rottb., Descr. et Ic., 20, t. 4, f. 5 ; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., i, 189 ; Clarke, Ind. Cyperus 197. 

Minikoi; Fleming / 

A littoral species, extending from Indo-China and Malaya to India, Ceylon, 
the Mascareue Islands and the African Coast. 

170. Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb., Descr. et Ic., 13, t. 4, f. 3. 

Minikoi; in the sward imderneath the coco-nut trees, Fleming ! 

Cosmopohtau in the tropics. 

171. Fimbristylis diphylla Yahl., Enmn., ii, 289. Scirp.is 
miliaceiis Roxb., Flor. Ind., i, 227. 

Kalpeni ; AlcocJe! 

The sohtary specimen is not a good one, and the identification is not absolute¬ 
ly certain. The plant is, however, not any of the other Cyperacem enumerated. 

Common on seashores and in wet places tlnmighout the tropics. 

GRAMINEiE. 

172. Fanicum sanguinale Linn., Sp. PI, 57. 

VAR. ciliare. P. ciliare Retz., Obs., iv, 16 ; Roxb., Mor. Ind., i., 293. 

Akati; dwarfed specimens, Fleming ! Minikoi; very abundant, Fleming ! 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics ; the variety present here seems, however, confined 
to the Eastern Hemisphere. 

173. Oplismenus Burmanni Beauv., Agrost., 54. Panicum Bur- 
manni Retz., Obs., hi, 10 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., i, 298. 

Akati ; Fleming ! Kadamum ; Fleming ! Khtan ; Fleming ! Mmikoi ; 
Fleming ! Everywhere abundant, as is the next species. 

Cosmopohtan in tropical and subtropical countries. 

174. Oplismenus compositus Roem. & Schult., Syst., h, 484. 
Panicum compositum Linn., Sp. PI. 57. P. lanceolatum Roxb., Flor. Ind., , 
294. 

Ameni; Hume / Akati; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming I 

Widely distributed throughout the tropics of the old world. 

175. Setaria verticillata Beauv., Agrost., 51. Panicum vertidl- 
atum Liim., Sp. PI. (ed. h) 82 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind, i, 301. 

Ameni; a crop, v&rnac. “ badag,” RoUnson. Bangaro ; Hume ! Kadamum ; 
Fleming / KRtan ; Fleming ! If cultivated at the time of Mr. Robinson’s vis^ c 
(1844), apparently not cultivated when Mr. Flume was at the Laccadives (1876) ; 
its presence m the uninhabited isknd of Bangaro indicates, moreover, that 

371 


72 JOURNAL, B02IBAY NATURAL BLSTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


here, as elsewhere, the species is one that teadUy becomes established as a 
weed. 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. / 

176. ^ Thuarea sarmentosa Pers., Synops., i, 110. 

Bangaro ; Hum ! Kadamum ; Fleming ! Minikoi; Fleming / 

A littoral species, extending from the shores of Polynesia to Malaya, the 
Andamans and Mcobars, Ceylon (Thwaites C. P. 2260), the Laccadives, and the 
Mascarene Islands. As with a number of other littoral species exhibiting the 
same distribution, this has not yet been collected on the coast of the Indian 
mainland. 

177. Spinifex squarrosus Linn., Mantiss., 300. 

Bitrapar ; everywhere ha huge patches inside the belt of Ipomoea liloha, 
Hume ! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A littoral species found on the Western Indian Coast from Canara {Thomson) 
to Malabar {Rheede) and on the east from Puri {Clarice) and Gopalpur {Prain) to 
Madras {Wight) and Ceylon {Thwaites). Besides extending to the Laccadives, it 
occm-s in Java {Kuri), Siam {Schomlurgh), and China {Hance). But in the 
Calcutta Herbarium there are no specimens from Brnmia, the Malay Peninsula, 
the Aiidamaus or the Nicobars. The headquarters of the genus is Australia, 
where several species occur ; and if this species has originally come from the 
south-east to India, it has apparently only reached the western, not the eastern, 
side of the Sea of Bengal, first perhaps reaching Ceylon, whence it has crept 
northward along both the coasts of the Indian Peninsula. Wliy it should not 
have become dispersed northward from Java, along the coasts of Sumatra, the 
Nicobars'and Andamans to Burma, it is difficult to conceive. 

178. Oryza sativa Linn., Sp. PI. 333 ; Eoxb., Plor. lud., ii, 200 ; 
Watt, Diet., V, 498. The Rice crop. 

Anderut; a small quantity of rice is grown in the rainy season, not more 
than 15 or 20 days’ consumption, Wood, 

Generally cultivated throughout the tropics ; probably originally a native of 
India, where it often occm-s, as Roxbm-gh says he has himself seen it in the 
Circars, in a truly wild state, that is, not as an escape from cultivation. It 
occm-s thus, for example, in the Sunderbuns along with another species {Oryza 
coarctata Eoxb., Flor. Ind., ii, 206), which is perfectly distinct from 0, sativa 
in any of its forms, is never found anywhere else than in the Sunderbuns, and 
of which no use whatever is made. 

The notice by Lieut. Wood is the only intimation of the Laccadive islanders 
cultivating the rice crop ; but though they do not apparently attempt to grow 
it now, there is no reason to suppose that Wood was misinformed or mistaken. 
For though Eobinson does not mention rice as a crop in 1844-45'—it will be 
372 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


73 


noted that he did not visit Anderat then—he gives a circumstantial accoimt of 
the cultivation of certain millets and pulses in Ameni and Kadamum, but says 
that in Chitlac field-cultivation was then quite insignificant and that in Kiltan 
it had given way altogether before the planting of coco-nut trees. Writing 
thirty years later, Mr. Hume says* that “ in former days a certain amount of 
miOets used to be grown in all the islands ; now, even in Ameni’, little or 
“ none appears to be cultivated, and the people are wholly dependent for their 
“ supplies on the mainland, whence they bring, not only rice, but tobacco and 
“ salt, which, cmiously enough, never seems to have been manufactured on the 
“ islands, the people being allowed to get duty-free salt from Goa.” 

In Anderat, judging from Dr. Alcock’s brief notice of the island, there 
appears to be even to tins day more cereal cultivation than in most of the other 
islands ; stiU he does not speak of rice as being grown, and says that the staple 
crop is ragi {Eleusine Coracand). 

X 179. Sacchartjm officinaeum Linn., Sp. PI. 54 ; Eoxb., Flor. Ind., i, 
4 37. 

Minikoi; cultivated, Fleming.^. 

Cultivated throughout the tropics. 

/ 180. Ischaemum ciliare Retz., Obs., vi, 36. I. t&nellnm Eoxb., 
Plor. Ind., i, 323. 

Kalp^ni; Alcock / Akati; Fleming I Bitrapar ; Fleming! Kadamum ; 
Fleming ! Kiltan ; Fleming ! Everywhere very plentiful. 

\ Confined to China, India and Indo-China. 

181. Ischaemum muticum Linn., Sp. PI. 1049. L rqpens, Eoxb., 
Flor. Ind., i, 323. 

Kalpeni; Alcoch ! Mimkoi; Fleming ! 

; Extends from S. E. Asia to Australia and Western Polynesia ; is very common 
on the coast in the Andamans and Nicobars. 

182. Andropogon contortus Linn., Sp. PI. 1045 ; Eoxb., Idor. 


Ind., i, 253. 

IHltan ; Alcocl / Kadamum ; very plentiful, Fleming ! 

A common grass of dry places, cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

A83. Andeopogon mueioatus Eetz., Obs., iii, 43 ; Eoxb., Flor. Ind., i, 
265 ; Watt, Diet., i, 245. The Khus-lhus grass. 

Kiltan ; a little clump found growing near the mosque, Feming ! 
Cosmopolitan in the tropics ; here probably introduced. Haeckel (Z»(7., Slonegr. 
riianmg., vi., 542)identifies A. muricatus Eetz. with A. squarrosus Liim. f., but 
omits to cite Eoxburgh’s description of the Khus-khus grass or to say whether 


* “ Stray Feathers,” iv, 441. 


373 




74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


! in Ills opinion A. sqmrrosus is, or is not, the Khus-ldius. There can, of coui’se, 
^ bo no possibility of doubt as to the grass intended by Roxburgh, though there 
may be some as to the identity of Roxburgh’s plant with that of Retzius. 

184. Sorghum vulgaee Pers., Synops-, i, 101. Amlroqpogon Sorghum 
Roxb., Plor. lud., i, 269. The Sorghum, vernac. “ Jowa.” 

Am6ni; cultivated, BoUnson, Kadamum ; cultivated, RoUnson, Mhiilmi : 
grows well, but very little cultivated, Fleming.. 

Cultivated throughout warm countries. 

185. Apluda aristata Linn., Amocn. Acad., iv, SOS , Roxb,, 
Flor. Ind., i, S24. 

Kadamum; filling aU the outskirts of the jimgle, Hume! Mhiikoi ; very 
abundant, Fleming / 

In woods, and hedges throughout South-Eastern Asia. 

186. Cynodon Dactylon Pers,, Synops.,i, 85, Panicum Dactglon 
Linn., Sp. PI. 58 ; Roxb., Elor. Ind., i, 289. 

Kalpeni ; Alcoclc ! j ■ 

Cosmopolitan in the tropics. The plant from Bangaro, referred with doubt to 
this species by Mr. Hume {Siray Feathers, iv, 452), is in reality Thuarea 
sarmentosa. 

187. Eleusine Algyptiaca Pers., Synops., i, 82 ; Roxb., Flor. 
Ind., i, 344. 

Ameni; Hume ! Kadamum ; Fleming ! 

A cosmopohtan tropical weed of cultivation. 

188. Eleusihe Coeacaha Gaertn., Eract., i, 8, t. 1, f. 11 ; Roxb., 
Flor. Ind., i, 343 ; Watt, Diet., iii, 237. The Ragi crop; the 31arua Millet. 

Ameni; RoUnson. Anderut; Alcoclc. Kadamum ; RoUnson. Kalp&fi ; 
Alcoclc ! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

A field crop in India, Egypt and Japan. 

189. Eleusine indica Gaertn., Fract., i, 8 ; Roxb., Flor. Ind., i, 345. 

Mimkoi; Fleming 1 

A cosmopolitan tropical species, occurring as .a weed in waste places and on 
waysides. 

^ 190. Eragrostis plumosa Steud., Gram., i, 266. E. tmella Trin. 
YK^.'plumosa Trin., Act. Petrop, vi, i, 398. Poa plumosa Retz, Obs., iv, 20 ; 

Roxb., Flor. Ind., i, 327. P. tmella Linn. var. - Spreng., Syst, Veo-., 

i, 341. 

VAE. typica. 

Kalpeni; Alcoclc ! Almti; Fleming ! Kadamum ; Fleming 1 Kiltan ; Flem¬ 
ing ! Minikoi; Fleming ! 

VAE. paniculis fastigiatis. 

374 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


75 


( Akati; Fleming ! Kadamnm ; Fleming ! Miaikoi ; Fleming ! 

A common grass in Indian fields and waste places.^ 

^191. Iiepturus repens R. Br., Prodr. Plor. Kov. Holl., i, 207. 
Bangaro ; Hume ! Bitrapar ; Fleming ! Minikoi; Feming ! 

A littoral species, extending from Polynesia and Australia to Ceylon, the 
Laccadives and the Mascarene Islands. 

CRVFTOGAIVIIA, 

LYCOPODIACE^. 

192. Psilotum triquetrum Swartz, Syn. Pil., 117 ; Baker, Fern 
Allies, 30. 

Minikoi; Fleming ! 

' Cosmopolitan in the tropics. 

FILICES. 

193. Nephrodlum molle Desv., Mem, Soc. Linn,, vi, 258 ; Bedd., 
Ferns of Brit. Ind., 277. Polypodiumparasiticum Liim., Sp. PI. (ed. ii) 1551. 
F.proliferum Roxb., Flor. Ind. (ed. Clarke), 752. 

Anderat; Alcoclc! 

Cosmopohtan in the tropics. 

194. Wephrolepis cordifolia Presl, Tent. Pterid. 79 ; Bedd., 
Ferns of Brit. Ind., 282. Polypodium cordifolium Linn., Sp. PI. (ed, ii) 1549. 
Andemt; Alcoclc! 

Cosmopohtan in the tropics. 

CHARACE^. 

195. Chara sp., Alcock, Adm. Rep. Marine Smwey, 1891-92, p. 10. 
Akati ; in fresh-water tanks, Alcoclc. 

Unfortunately, no specimens were collected. It is not at all improbable that 
ZanicMlia palustris {Naiadacece) may be found associated with Cliara in this 
place ; it often is in similar localities. 

MUSCI. 

196. Calymperes Dozyanum Mitt, in Joirai, Linn. Soc., iii, 
Suppl. 42. C. moUucmse Dozy & Molk, Bryol. Jav., i, 47, t. 37, nec 
Schwaegr. 

Minikoi; Alcoclc! 

Extends from Samoa and the Admiralty Islands to the Philippuies, Java, the 
iVndamans (Great Coco Island, where it is very plentiful), Ceylon, India {teste 
]\Iitten l.c) and Minikoi, where it is plentiful. It is the only moss reported 

375 


7G JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VI11. 


from the island ; Dr. Alcock, writing from the “ Investigator, remarks on the 
presence of so much moss and fungus at Minikoi as compared with the other 
islands, where there are hardly any fungi and there is apparently no moss. On 
this point he adds :—“ But the island is near the equatorial belt of condensation.” 

LICHENES. 

(N. 0. Lichenacei.) 

197. Physcia leucomela Michx, Flor. Bor. Am., ii, 356 ; Nyland., 
Synops. Lich., i, 414. 

M inik oi; on coco-nut trees, Alcock ! 

Cosmopohtan in tropical and temperate regions on tree trunks. 

198. Physcia obscura Fries, Lich. Em*., 84 ; Nyland., Synops. 
Lich., i, 427. 

Minikoi; on coco-nut trees, Alcock ! 

Cosmopohtan on trees and rocks. 

FUNGI. 

(N. 0. Hymenomtcetes.) 

199. Pleurotus cuneatus G. Massfe, sp. nov. pileo camosulo, 
tcnui, exacte laterah, fiabelhformi postice in stipitem brcvissimum producto, 
glabro, albolamellis decmrentibus, divergentibus, subconfcrtis, angustis, albis, 
siccitate palhde ochraceis ; sporis elhpsoideis. 

Minikoi; on coco-nut trees, Alcock ! 

Nearest to Pl&iirotus scahrellus. Berk. 

200. Pleurotus tenuissimus Jungh., Eniun. Fung. Jav. 

Minik oi ; on dead screw-pines, Alcock / 

Java. 

201. Schizophyllum commune Fries, Syst. Mycol, i, 330. 

Kiltan ; on rotten branches of Ricmus communis, Fleming ! 

Cosmopohtan. 

202. Polyporus sanguineus Fries, Epicris. 404. 

Kadamum ; on decayed coco-nut stumps, Fleming! Minik oi ; on dead 
branches of screw-pme, Alcock / 

Cosmopohtan in tropical and subtropical countries. 

203. Polyporus igniarius Fries, Hymen. Em-., 559. 

k Tinik oi ; Alcock ! 

Cosmopohtan, or nearly so. 

204. Trametes IMEuelleri Berk., Jour. Linn. Soc., x, 320. 

Minikoi; Alcock ! 

Austraha, Brazil. 

376 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


77 


205. Hirneola polytricha Mont., SyUog. Gen. & Sp. PI. Orypt., 181. 

Minikoi; “ from a wooden house-post,” Alcoch / 

Almost cosmopolitan in tropical and subtropical countries. 

ALG^. 

206. Kostoc verrucosum Yauch., Conf., 225. 

Minikoi; covering the ground in damp places, Alcoclc ! 

Cosmopolitan. 

There are also some Marine Algge, at least in Muiikoi on the reefs of the 
weather-side of the island (Alcock, Adm. B^p.^ Marine Survey^ 1891-92) ; of 
these no specimens were collected. 

Chaeacteristic features of the flora. 

The list given above iucludes 206 species, representing 156 genera and 61 
natm'al orders ; 191 of the species are and only 15 are Cryptc- 

gams^ giving a proportion of flowering to flowerless plants of about tlnrteeu to 
one ; the percentages are ;— 

Phanerogams, 93* % ; 

Cryptogams, T °/o. 

Of the Phanerogams 150 are Dicots and 41 are Monocots^ the proportion here 
being nearly four to one ; the percentages are ;— 

Dicotyledons, 78*5 °/o ; 

Monocotyledons, 21*5 °/o. 

Only three vascular cryptogams have been found in the Archipelago, with 
only one moss, while at least one species of Chara occurs ; two-thirds of the 
Cryptogams obtained are Fungi or Lichens. It ought not to be concluded, 
because one of the Fungi enumerated has as yet been reported only from 
Minikoi that it is truly endemic iu that island ; in aU probability it will yet be 
found to occur elsewhere. The Marine Algse mentioned above wiU in all 
probability be found when they are at length collected to belong to some 
of the commoner Indian Ocean forms. 

A synoptic view of the Flora is given in the table which follows :— 


377 


Table III,—Systematic Synopsis of Laccadive Flora, 


78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


o 

lO 


Ot) Cl 
kO CM 


!>. lO CO 
t—I I—I CO 


(M l> 


OQ 




CO (X> 

I—< 


(M !>■ 

I—I t-i 


CO 


CO 

CM 


00 00 


I 



378 






























































































































BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


79 


Of the 60 natural orders, 28 are represented by only one species ; 10 by two 
species ; 7 by three species. The most extensively represented natm-al orders 
dXQ Legimims(» (21 sp.) and Qraminm (20 sp.) ; followed by EuphorUacecti 
(14 sp.) and Gompositm (10 sp.) ; Malvacsce, (9 sp.), Ruhkmce, and Gijp&racm 
(each 8 sp.) ; Gonvolvulacm and Fungi (Hymmomijcetes) (each 7 sp.) ; Rvtamey 
Gmurbitacm and Solmacece. (each 6 sp.) ; Acanthacem and Vrticace(& (each 
5 sp.) ; Verlmacme (4 sp.). 

The land-mark height of the islands of the group is usually about 60 feet; 
none of them exceed this. Deducting, therefore, the 12 to 15 feet of coral forma¬ 
tion that composes the islands, we find that none of the trees in the group are 
more than 45 to 50 feet high. The tallest trees, and those that in all the 
inhabited islands, except Kadamum, form at the same time the bulk of the 
vegetation, are the coco-nuts, which are cultivated ; the majority of the 
remaining arboreal forms are also cultivated species, most of them being fruit- 
trees like Anma murimki, Artocar^is indsa, Mangifera indica, Tamarindus 
indica, or trees like Maringa pt&rygospmna, with an immediate, or, like Seshania 
grandiji&ra, with an indirect economic interest. There are only five arboreal 
species that are at all likely to be truly “ iudigenous ” in the accepted sense of 
the term ; four of these—the Tliespesia, the Galophyllum, the Pisonia and 
Terminalia Gatappa—?iXQ probably sea-introduced, the fifth (Ficus nitida) is 
perhaps a bird-introduced species ; four, however, as it happens, are knovm to 
be planted by the inhabitants at least in some of the islands, though three of 
them are undoubtedly “ wild” as well as planted. 

In the interior of the majority of the islands there is no true jungle, the whole 
cultivable area being occupied by coco-nut groves with small patches of garden- 
land (Teat) ; on this account there is, as might be expected, only a flora of 
tropical cultivated species, with the usual tropical weeds of cultivation and Indian 
garden escapes reported from the centre or the islands, and with some common 
Indian Ocean littoral species from the sea-fence that fines the shore. In the 
interior of the smaller uninhabited islands, such as Bitra and Bangaro, a dense 
jungle does, indeed, exist ; it is, however, composed of littoral species that have 
spread inward from the beach on both sides of the island tiU the two sea-fences 
have met and coalesced in the middle. In these islands the jungle is shrubby, 
hardly even subarboreal. The only island where there are considerable tracts of 
unoccupied ground, and where a true interior jungle exists, is Kadamum. Here 
also the jungle is of the nature of “ scrub,” and though there are present in it 
some quite characteristic inland forms, such as Pavetta, Plmrostylia and 
Flacourtia, which are not reported from the other islands, these do not exclusively 
compose the central jungle; characteristically “ littoral” species, Premm, Morinda 
and the like, enter largely mto its formation. 


379 


80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol VIII, 

Only 47 species are woody, 20 of these being trees, 2 5 shrubs, and 2 climbers. Of 
the 20 trees, 15 are cultivated species ; 4 of the remaining 5 are “httoral.” Of the 
159 herbaceous species, 119 are herbs proper, 28 are chmbers,and 12 are of the class 
of “tree-herbs” or “ shrub-herbs” like Musa or Garim and Agave or Calotropis. 

Fi’om the nature of the group we are led to expect that none of the species are 
really indigenous ; further, that the majority of the species must have been intro¬ 
duced by man, and that next to human agency that of the sea has been most active. 
Detailed examination confirms these anticipations, for we find that as many as 
127 species (tlwee-fifths of the whole flora) are species that have been introduced 
by man. Of these, 52, or a foindh of the whole flora, are purely cultivated 
plants ; 7 others that appear mostly in an apparently wild state are likewise cul¬ 
tivated ; 4 that are cultivated occur occasionally as escapes. These figures refer 
to plants grown for economic reasons, but there are 13 other species that are 
“ garden escapes” in the more usual sense, being bright-flowered or sweet-smeUing 
sixicies originally grown dehberately. The remaining 64 species are mere weeds. 

Of the balance, the larger moiety (41 species or one-fifth of the whole flora) 
consists of “ httoral” sea-introduced species; the remainder mcludes 9 marsh 
or water species (a very small proportion of the flora) and 27 mland species. 

The people of Mhflkoi cultivate 40 species as against 24 cultivated in Ameni, 
18 m Anderat, 13 in Akati, 13 in Kiltan and 11 in Kadammn. The figures 
for the other islands are not at ah complete. Doubtless, for some of these they are 
imperfect, but there is no reason to doubt that the numbers given are approxi¬ 
mately true ; they place the islands in a series winch accords very weh with the 
general accounts that have been given by those who have visited the islands, of 
the relative wealth and comfort of the people. 

The cultivation of most of the species is the dhect result of the intercom-se 
of the people with the Indian mainland, perhaps the chief exception is their use 
of the South Sea Islanders’ Taro {Tacca pinnatifida). Of the cultivated plants, 10 
are originally American, 5 originally African, 2 originally Clmiese, the rest either 
Indian or Indo-Malayan ; the cultivation of nearly all the species is now, however, 
cosmopohtan m the tropics. 

The weeds, like the cultivated plants, are by no means evenly distributed 
tlu’oughout the Archipelago. Of the whole 64 species, as many as 20 are reported 
from only one island ; even if we allow for the possibikty of a species having 
been here and there overlooked, the proportion is very high. Without going 
into too great detail, it may be noted that 8 of these weeds—one-eighth of the 
weed-list—are reported only fromMinikoi; more remarkable still, 31 species—' 
very nearly one-half the fist—occur in one or other of Laccadives proper, but not 
in Mmilvoi. The meaning of this is not very clear ; it may be partly due to 
there being no large waste area in Mmikoi, as there is for instance in Kadamum; 
pyrhaps, too, the people hold less uitercomse with India than do those of the other 
380 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


81 


islands. . That they do hold some may be surmised from the presence in 
Minikoi of one species, Andlema ovalifolium, which is found in India only, not 
appearing even in Ceylon or in any of the other Laccadive Islands. It is, of 
com’se, not impossible that this is a bh’d-introduced species, in which case its 
peculiarly hmited area of distribution is difficult to explain. As regards Kadamum, 
the same remarks apply to the even more restricted Oyperus hyalinus; perhaps, 
however, this species may not be in South India so rare as we at present think. 

So far as their general distribution goes, 26 (40 °/o) of the weeds are cosmo¬ 
politan in the tropics—a few have not been reported from the Mascarene Islands, 
though they occur in Africa itself ; other 10 are nearly cosmopolitan, being 
present hi both hemispheres—of these, 4 are absent from Polynesia, 2 from 
Australia, 3 from Austraha and Polynesia, and one, which is confined to 
South-Eastern Asia and America, from Africa also. Altogether, therefore, 36 
of these species, or 56 °/o of the weeds, occur in the tropics of both hemispheres. 

Of the species absent from the new world, there are 2 which extend from the 
Eastern Hemisphere to Polynesia, and 2 more that extend to Australia without 
reaching Polynesia. As many as 11 species, or 17 °/o of the weeds, are com* 
mon to Africa and South-Eastern Asia ; but 4 of these are African only in the 
sense that they occur as weeds, no doubt introduced from India, hi Mauritius. 
Of the whole, 13 species, or 20 °/o of the weeds, are confined to Asia ; all 
of them occur in India, though it is noteworthy that no fewer than 9 of 
them appear to be mikuowu in Ceylon ; this being so, we are not sm'prised to 
find that 14 of them are unknown in Malay countries. 

Considering next the species of the “ sylvestrian” class as opposed to those 
introduced by human agency, we expect that as the islands appeared above 
sea-level, they must first have afforded a footing for littoral species. Such 
plants could scarcely in point of time be preceded even by species of the 
wiud-hitroduced class, while the conditions on the islands would be much 
more favourable for sea-introduced than for wind-introduced ones. Introduction 
by buds could only become active after species of the other classes had been 
established and had rendered the islands sufficiently attractive and conspicuous 
for birds to alight on them. We anticipate, therefore, that of the three kinds of 
species mentioned the httoral sea-introduced class should be comparatively 
numerous, the other classes relatively scarce. This expectation is fully borne 
out by the facts. 

The coast-flora includes 41 unequivocally sea-introduced plants, and forms 
a fifth, or 20 %, of the entire Flora. Of these 41 species, 12, or 29 (nearly 
a third), are cosmopohtan on tropical seashores. Of the remainder, 11 species, or 
nearly 27 °/o, extend from Polynesia to these islands, no fewer than 9 of them 
extending further west to Africa, or the Mascarene Islands, or both. There are 
3 species that do not extend further east than to Austraha and 13 that do not 

381 


82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Vol. VIII. 


extend further than Malaya. On the other hand, 2 species 
and Gyperus pachyrUzus) find on the Laccadives and the adjacent Indian Coasts 
their extreme eastmost extension ; the Ctyperm is a plant characteristic of the 
western coasts of India and of Arabia, the Launea occurs on the coasts of 
Eastern Africa—across the Arabian Sea—as well. With these two exceptions, 
however, all of the httoral species occur on Malay Coasts, and it is significant of 
the extent to which the sea-board flora is Malayan rather than Indian. When we 
observe that though 39, or over 97 °/o, of them are found in Malaya, no fewer 
than 8, or 20 °/o, of them are absent from the neighbouring Indian Coasts. 
The islands come, therefore, more within the influence of those ocean-currents 
that sweep up from the south-east from Malayan Seas than does the Indian 
Coast; their shores, therefore, have some of the species characteristic of nearly 
every tropical coast from Fiji to the Seychelles that are wanting in India. 

Of inland as opposed to httoral species those that are wind-introduced, as being 
likely to appear earhest, are the first to be considered. These are Phanerogams 
with seeds or fruits fitted for wind-carriage—of which there are here but two 
unequivocal examples {Tylophora and Leptadmia) —and small spored Cryptogams, 
of which there are 14. The two Phanerogams are species confined to South- 
Eastern Asia ; of the Cryptogams, on the other hand, 10 are cosmoj)ohtan in the 
tropics ; one {Trametes Muelleri, which occurs hkewise in Austraha and in South 
America) is nearly so ; another {Calympms Dozyanum) occurs throughout South- 
Eastern Asia and in Polynesia ; only two are confined to South-Eastern Asia, 
and of these one has, so far as is at present known, been found only in Muukoi. 

Of the species introduced by birds, whether by being carried in pellets of mud 
or otherwise attached to theu feet or then* feathers, or carried as undigested 
seeds in their crops, the flora affords very few examples. 

Of the former subgroup, consisting of marsh weeds with small seeds or fruits, 
there are but 9 unequivocal examples. They are, as a rule, widely distributed 
species ; here, for example, three occm* in both hemispheres—two arc foimd 
throughout the tropics of the old world ; one extends from India to Polynesia. 
Only one is confined to South-Eastern Asia, and of one—the Chara, whose 
specific identity is unknown—we cannot speak. 

Of the second subgroup, species with soft fruits but resistent seeds, there are 
only 8 clear examples. Then most notable feature as compared with the last is 
then confined distribution. None are cosmopolitan, only one extends eastwards 
as far as Polynesia, and this one {Ficus niticki) does not even in that direction 
pass beyond New Caledonia ; at the same time only one {Datura fastuosa) ex¬ 
tends to America, and though its introduction by birds is clearly possible,^ it is, no 
doubt, more usually introduced by man. While three species extend to Austra¬ 
lia and four to the Mascarene Islands or Africa, it is worthy of note that none of 


382 


* Prain, Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (189J), p. 171. 



BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES, 


83 


them occur both in Africa and in Australia. Indeed, one species, Plmrostylia 
Wightii^ exhibits the peculiarity of being restricted to Ceylon, Southern India, 
the Island of Kadamura and Mauritius ; with this solitary exception, however, 
all the species of this kind occur in Malaya, as well as in India and Ceylon. 

Eeviewing in tabular form the facts indicated in the preceding paragraphs, 
we find the number and proportion of the species that have been certainly, or 
possibly, or probably influenced by the various distributive agencies to be as 
follows :— 


Table IV.—Modes of introduction of Laccadive Plants. 


Introduced by 

Certainly. 

Possibly. 

Probably. 

No. of Sp. 

Per cent. 

No. of Sp. 

Per cent. 

No. of Sp. 

Per cent. 

Man .. 

115 

56 7o 

139 

68 °/o 

129 

63 °/o 

TVifi Rp.a. 

35 

12 7o 

8% 

7 7o 

45 

22 °/o 

41 

20 7o 

Winds . 

16 

18 

9 7o 

17 

8 7o 

Birds. 

15 

21 

10 7o 

19 

9 ° o 






XA-U LiJJt/ OCOiJ-JU XiV/XXi --- w, - -- - 

garden escapes, the majority of which are exotics, as well as the undetermined 
Chara, the general distribution of the Laccadive Floi;^ may be tabulated as 
follows: — 

Table V .— Synopsis of Distribution of Laccadive Species. 


Cultivated species, garden escapes, undetermined species 


66 


31 - 6 °/, 


Cosmopolitan in the Tropics., 


51 


2o*l°, 


Almost so ; present in both Hemispheres... 

Absent from Polynesia only . 

Absent from Australia only .. 

Absent from Australia and Polynesia ... 
Absent from Africa, Australia, Polynesia 


4 

2 

4 

2 


2°/o 

l°/o 

2°/o 

l°/o 


12 


Confined to Old World ... 

In Africa, Asia, Australia, Polynesia 

In Africa, Asia, Australia . 

In Africa and Asia ... 


In Asia, Australia, Polynesia 

In Asia, Australia. 

In Asia, Polynesia . 


Confined to S. E. Asia. 


13 

6-3 

5 

2-2 

19 

9-3 

4 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

32 

15-5 


Total, 


77 S7-37<, 


206 100 % 


383 





























































ADDITIONAL NOTE. 


S4 


Since this paper was published, the writer has learned that while it is true 
that in Sir Wm. Robinson’s day the Southern Laccadive islands belonged to 
the Cannanore raj, and though this arrangement was still in force at the time 
of Mr. A. 0. Hume’s visit in 1875, very shortly after this date they were, 
owing to revenue arrears, placed directly under British rule.* 

The name given in this paper to the excavated areas under cultivation is 
wrong. Sir Wm. Robinson gives two names—the tot or hat, and the writer 
following what'has become the more usual custom has unfortunately employed 
the latter only. But it is the word tot, which is a form of the Malayalam 
word for garden, that should alone be used ; the word hat is a form of a 
Malayalam word for forest or jungle and is altogether inapplicable. The 
writer is indebted to Mr. Winterbotham, Collector of Tanjore, for kindly point¬ 
ing out this error to him. 

Mr. Winterbotham informs him also that on Suhelipar reef there is an 
island, Suheli; and that it has coco-nut trees.f 

In addition to the species enumerated in the list of plants should be inserted 
after n.l63, 163b. Alocasia indica, Lion, which, as well as Golocasia 
antiquorum, is cultivated in Kalpeni, and perhaps in some of the other islands. 

* It is ckaracteristic of the inexactness of the information contained in the Imperial 
Gazetteer of India that even its second edition (1886) makes no mention of this not un¬ 
important fact. 

What would happen were these arrears to be paid up it is very hard to predict. The 
inhabitants of the southern islands, after nearly twenty years’ experience of settled British 
administration, declare that they will resist by force any attempt on the part of the Can- 
nanore raj to re-impose on them a native domination. 

t It is not unlikely that, as in Bitrapar, these coco-nut trees have been planted. The 
island has a particularly fine lagoon and is often visited for its nuts and coir j doubtless it 
would be permanently inhabited were it not that, again exactly as in Bitrapar, when wells 
are dug only brackish and undrinkable water is obtained. One of the special features of 
Suheli is the presence of a large Banyan tree, clearly a planted species. 


384 




BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


Index of Species and Synonyms. 


Abutilon indicuni G. Don 

populifolium G. Don 

29 

30 

Asclepias suberosa Roxb. 

47 

Acalypha fallax Mnell.-Arg. 

60 

Bael 

32 

53 
61 

Hochstetteri Muell.-Arg. 

60 

Ballota disticha L. 

indica L. 

60 

Banyan 

indica Prain 

60 

Barbadoes Cotton 

31 

5 r 

Mercurial is A. Juss. 

60 

Barleria cilinta Hume 

Achyranihes aspera L. 

55 

c?-istata Praia 

5 r 

bidefilata Bl. ^ 

56 

Prionitis Z. 

51 

lanata L. 

55 

Basil 

5 5 

porphyrisinchyaYlY[\. 56 

Bastard American Aloe 

63 

Adenostenima reticulatum DC. 

44 

Berger a Koenigii Vahl 

3 I 

viscosum Forst. 

44 

Betel-nut 

64 

Aegle Marinelos Corr, 

32 

Bidens bipiimata L. 

45 

Aetna lanata Juss. 

55 

pilosa Z. 

45 

Aeschynoinene grandiflora 1^. 

35 

Bird’s-eye Chillie 

5° 

spinulosa Roxb. 

35 

Bixa Orellana Z. 

28 

Agati 

35 

Black Dhytoora 

50 

Agaii grandiflora Desv. 

35 

Black Plum 

40 

Agave Cautula Roxb. 

63 

Blumea laciniata DC. 

44 

vivipara L. 

63 

Boerhaavia diffusa L. 

54 

Ageratuni aquaticuin Roxb. 

44 

procumbens Banks 

54 

conyzoides L. 

44 

repens Z. 

54 

cordifolium Roxb. 

44 

Bread-fruit 

61 

Ajuga disticha Roxb. 
Alexandrian Laurel 

55 

29 

Buchnera asiatica L. 

51 

Allophylus Cobbe Bl. 

33 

Caesalpinia Bonducella Flem. 

38 

Amarantus viridis Z. 

55 

Calophyllum inophyllum Z. 

29 

American Aloe, Bastard 

63 

Calotropis gigantea B.Br. 

46 

Amla 

59 

Calymperes Dozyanum Mitt. 

75 

Animania baccifera Z. 

40 

molluce7tse D. & M. 

75 

vesicaioria Roxb. 

40 

Canavalia ensiformis DC. 

36 

Anatto 

28 

lineata DC. 

37 

Andropogon contortus Z. 

73 

obtusifolia DC. 

37 

muricatus Betz 

73 

turgida Grab. 

36 

Sorghum Roxb. 

74 

Cape Gooseberry 

49 

squarrostis L.f. 

73 

Capellenia mohiccaua T. & B. 

58 

Aneilema ovalifolium H. f 

64 

Capsicum frutescens Z. 

50 

Anisomeles ovata B. Br. 

53 

11 'ini mum Boxb. 

50 

.A.nona mnricata Z. 

28 

Cardiftspernum Halicacabum Z. 

33 

Apluda aristata Z. 

74 

Carica Papaya Z. 

40 

Arachis hypogaea Z. 

36 

Carpopogo?! capitatum Roxb. 

36 

Arbor ovigera Rumph 

57 

Cassia occidentalis Z. 

39 

regis Rumph 

57 

d'ora Z. 

36 

Arena Catechu Z. 

64 

Cassytha filiformis Z. 

50 

Arlocar[)US incisa Forst. 

6 r 

Castor-oil 

62 

integrifolia L.f. 

62 

Ceanothus asiaticus L. 

32 

Arum Colocasia L. 

70 

Celastrus opposita Wall. 

31 ' 

Asclepias asthmatica Willd. 

47 

Cejrhalandra indica Natid. 

45 

gigantea Willd. 

46 

Chara sp. 

79 

385 


86 


BOTAI^Y OF THE LACCADIVES. 


Chillie 
Cicca disticha L. 

Cissus carnosa Roxb. 

quadra 7 igularis Roxb. 
Citrus acida Roxb. 

Aurantium Z. 
decumana Z. 
niedica Z. 

Claoxylon Mercurialis Thw. 
Cleome viscosa Z. 

Clitoria ternatea Z. 

Coast Moon-flower 

Coco-nut 

Cocos nucifera Z. 

Colocasia antiquorum Sch. 
Colubrin? asiatica Brogn. 
Commelina cristata 1 .. 
Convolvulus alsmoides L 
Batatas L. 
dissect us L. 
grandijioriis I., f. 
parviflorus Vatil 
Pes-caprae L. 
Conyza cmerea L. 

lachiiata Roxb. 
Corchorus acutangulus Lamk 
fuscus Roxb. 
Co 7 vnilla aculeata Willd. 
Cotton 

Country Almond 
Crepis acaulis H.f. 

Crotalaria relusa Z. 

verrucosa Z. 
Cucumber 
Cucumis Melo Z. 

sativus Z. 
utilissimus Roxb 
Cucurbita maxima Duch. 
Cyanotis cristata R. S. 
Cy 7 ia 77 cJium alatu) 7 i Prain 

retic 7 ilatu 77 i Willd. 
Cynodon Dactylon Pers. 
Cyperuscompressus Z. 

co 77 glo 77 ieratus Roltb. 
dubius Rottb. 
byalinus Fa/it 
pachyrrhizus IVees 
\ ennatus La 77 ik 
polystachyus Rottb. 

Datura fastuosa Z. 


Dentella repens Forst. 42 

Desrnodium trifloruni DC. 36 

Dhatoora 50 

Dioscorea bulbifera Z. 63 

sativa Z. 63 

Dolichos Catja 77 g L. 38 

lineat 7 ts Thbg 38 

luteus Sw. 38 

obco 7 datus Roxb. 37 

rotuudifolius Roxb. 36 

Eclipta alba Hassk. 44 

prostrata L. 44 

Elensine acgyptiaca Pe 7 s. 74 

Coracana Gaert 7 i. 74 

indica GaeTt 7 i. 74 

E 7 idosper 7 iiu 77 i for 77 iicariu 77 i Becc. 58 
77 wluccanu 77 i Becc. 58 
Eragrostis plumosa Steud. 74 

te 7 iella Erin. 74 

Eugenia Jambolana Z. 40 

Jam bos Z. 39 

Euphorbia Atoto 59 

hirta L. 59 

hypericifolia Z. 59 

parviflora L. 59 

pilulifera Z. 59 

thymifolia Z. 59 

Evolvulus alsinoides Z. 49 

a 7 igustifolius Roxb. 49 
Imifolius L. 49 

Ficus [jengalensis Z. 6t 

Be 7 ija 77 ti 7 ia Willd. 61 

indica L. 61 

7 iitida Thbg. 61 

retusa Z. 61 

Fimbristylis diphylla Vahl yr 

Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb. 28 

Galega diffusa Roxb. 35 

Gloriosa superba Z. 68 

Gossypium barbadense Z. 31 

herbaceum Z. 31 

Gourd 41 

Gratiola Mo 7 i 7 iieria L. 5 7 

Ground-nut 36 

Guava 39 

Guctiarda sf-jcciosa L. 42 

Guilandma Bo 7 iduc T^. 38 

Bond/icella L. 38 

Alorbiga L. 34 


50 

60 

33 

33 

31 

32 

32 

31 

60 

28 

36 

47 

64 

64 

70 

32 

64 

49 

48 

48 

47 

48 

48 

44 

44 

3^ 

31 

35 

3t 

3i 

49 

35 

34 

44 

41 

41 

41 

41 

64 

47 

47 

74 

70 

70 

71 

70 

70 

70 

70 

50 


386 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


87 


Gulal Tulsi 

Hedysnrun triflorum L. 
Henna 

Hernandia ovigeta Gaertn. 
ovigera L. 
peltata Z. 
sonora L. 

Herpestis Monnieria H.B.K. 
Hibiscus populneiis L. 

rosa-sinensis Z. 
Solandra Z’ Her. 

' tiliaceus Z. 
Hirneola polytricha Mont. 
Horse-Radish Tree 
irypera 7 ithera Mormga Vahl 

Indian Cotton 
Privet 
Taro 

Indigo 

Indigofera cordifolia Heyne 
tinctoria Z. 
Ipomoea Batatas Z. 

biloba Forsk. 
Bojta-nox L. 
denticulata Chotsy 
grandiflnra Lamk 
grandifloi-a Roxb. 
Pes-caprae Roth 
sinuata Ortega 
Ischaenium ciliare Retz ■ 
muticum Z. 
repeiis Roxb, 
teitellum Roxb. 
Ixora Bandlmca Roxb. 
coccinea Z. 
paniculnta Lamk 
Pavetta Roxb. 

Jack-fruit 

Justicia bicalyculata Vahl 
pectinata L. 

Kachu 

Khus Khus Grass 
Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. 

Launea pinnatifida Cass. 
Lavvsonia alba L. 

inermis L. 


Lawsonia spinosa L. 40 

Leptadenia reticulata W. A. 47 
Lepturus rcpens R. Br. 7 c; 

Lime ^ i 

Linaria ramosissima Wall. qo 


Lippia nodiflora Rich. 52 

Lobelia fridescens L. 46 

Taccada Gaertn. 46 

LufTa aegyptiaca Alill. 40 

ciavata Roxb. 41 

pentandra Roxb, 41 

racemosa Roxb. 41 


Mangifera indica Z. 
Mango 

ISIarua millet 
Marvel of Peru 
Melon 
Mendi 


Mercurialis alternifolia Desv. 60 

alternifolia Hochst. 60 

Micrococca Mercurialis Bth. 60 

Microstacliys Mercurialis Dalz. 60 

Mirabilis Jalapa Z. 54 

Momordica Charantia Z. 41 

Luffa L. 41 

vionadelpha Roxb. 41 

Moon-flower 48 

Morinda bracteata Roxb. 43 

citrifolia L. 43 

Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. 34 

Mucuna capitata W. A. 36 

pruriens DC. 36 

Mudar 45 

Murraya YioexAgu Spreng. 31 

Musa sapientum Z. 62 


Nepeta indica L. 

Nephrodium molle Desv. 
Ne])hrolepis cordifolia Presl 
Nicandra indica R. & S. 
Nostoc verrucosum Vaucli. 
Nyctanthes hirsuta I.,, 


Ochrosia borbonica Gtnel. 46 

Ocimum Basilicum L. 53 

gratissimum Z. 53 

sanctum L. ^3 

Oldenlandia biflora Z. 42 

biflora Lamk 42 

corymbosa L. 42 


387 


53 

36 

40 

56 

57 

56 

57 

51 

30 

30 

30 

30 

77 

34 

34 

3T 

40 

70 

34 

34 

34 

48 

48 

48 

48 

47 

48 

48 

48 

73 

73 

73 

73 

42 

42 

43 

43 

62 

52 

52 

70 

73 

71 

45 

40 

40 


BOTANY OF THE LACCADIVES. 


Oldenlandia diffusa Eoxb. 42 

ramosa Roxb. 42 

repens L. 42 

Oplismenus Burinanni Beanv. 71 

compositus S. 71 

Orange 3 ^ 

Ornithotrope Cobbe Willd. 33 

Oryza coarctala Roxb. 72 

saliva L. 7 2 

Pancratium zeylanicum Z. 63 

Pandanus odoratissimus Z./. 69 

Vv,w\zv\\x\. Burinanni 71 

ciliare Retz 7 ^ 

Dactylon L. 74 

lanceolatum Roxb. 7 r 

sanguinale Z. 7* 

verticiliafum L. 7 t 

Paraw 40 

Perisivophe bicalyculata N'ees 52 

Phaseokis calcaratus Roxb. 38 

Phlnmis esculenia Roxb. 54 

Pbyllanthus distichus Afuell.-Arg .60 
Ernblica Z. 59 

longifolius Jacc). 60 

maderaspatensis Z. 59 

Nivuri L. 60 

obcorda tus Willd. 59 

rotundifolius Klel'i 60 

Urinaria Z. 59 

Physalis minima Z. 49 

peruviana Z. 49 

Physcia leucomela Mkhx 76 

obscura Z>7« 76 

Piper Belle Z. 

Pisonia alba Span. 55 

inermis Forst. 55 

Plantain __ ^"2 

Pleurostylia Wightii /F. A. 32 

Pleuroius cuneatus ylZm. 76 

tenuissimus Jungh. 76 

Plumbago zeylanica Z. 46 

plnmosa Rclz 74 

tenella L. 74 

Polygala erioptera DC. 29 

VaUiana DC. 29 

Polygonum baibaiuin Z. 56 

liviilare Kocn. 56 

Polyporus igniarius Fries _ 76 

sanguineus Fries 76 

Pomegranate 40 


Pomelo 32 

Poon-Spar 29 

Portia Tree 30 

Porlulaca oleracea Z. 29 

Poriidacastriun L. 41 

iuberosa Roxb. 29 

Pouzolzia Gaud. 62 

indica Gaud. 62 

Premna intcgrifolia Z 53 

ser rail folia L. 53 

spinosa Roxb. 53 

Prenanihes acaulis Roxb. 45 

asplenifolia Roxb. 45 
Psidium Guajava Z. 39 

poniijerum L. 39 

pyriferwn L. 39 

Psilolum triquetrum Sxv. 75 

Punica Granatum Z. 40 

Ra'gi 74 

Ram Tulsi 53 

Rhus Cobbe L. , 33 

Rice 72 

Ricinus communis Z. 60 

Rose-Apple 39 

Ruellia prostrata ZbzV. 51 

ringens Roxb. 51 

Rungia linifolia Nees 52 

parviflora Wm 52 

pectinata Nees 52 

Saccharum ofificinarum Z. 73 

Scaevola Koenigii Vahl 46 

Taccada Roxb. 46 

Schizophyllum commune Fries 76 
Scirpus miliaceus Roxb. 7 i 

Senna occidentalis Roxb. 39 

Tora Roxb. 39 

Serraiula cinerea Roxb. 44 

Sesban grandiflorus Poir . 35 

Seshania aculeata Pers. 35 

grand!flora Pers. 35 

Sesuvium Portulacastrum Z. 41 

Setaria verticillata Beanv. 71 

Shaddock 32 

Shoe-Flower 30 

Sida humilis Willd. 29 

indica L 30 

populifolia Lamk 30 

Solanum stramonifolium Roxb. 49 
lorvum Sxv. 44 


388 


BOTANY OF THE LACA DIVES. 


Sorghum 

Sorghum vulgare Eers. 
SOUR-SOP 
South-Sea Taro 
Spinifex squarrosus L. 
Stachytarpheta indica Vahl 
Siriga lutea Lour. 

Suriana maritima L. 
Sweet-potato 


Tacca pinnatifida Forsf. 
Tamarind 

Tamarindus indica Z. 

Taro 63, 

Tephrosia pumila Pers. 

purpurea Peis. 
tenuis Wall. 
Terminalia Catappa Z. 
Thespesia populnea Corr. 
Thuarea sarmentosa Pers. 
Tournefortia argentea Z. f. 
Tragia Alercurialis L. 

Tranietes Muelleri Berk. 
Triphasia trifoliata DC. 

Tulsi 

Tylophora asthmatica MY 6^ A. 


Urena sinuata Z. 30 

Urtica stiffruticosa Roxb. 62 

Verbena indica L. 52 

nodiflora L. 5 2 

Verbesina calendidacea L. 45 

Lavenia-alba L. 45 

scandens Roxb. 45 

Vernonia cinerea Less. 44 

Vigna Catjang Endl. 38 

lutea A. Gr. 38 

Vitis carnosa Wall. 33 

quadrangularis Wall. 33 

Wedelia calendulacea Less. 45 

scandens Clarke 46 

Winter-Cherry 49 

Wodastonia Llorsfieldiana Miq. 45 
insidaris DC. 45 

Yam 63 

Zanichellia palustris L. 75 


79 

74 

28. 

63 

72 

52 

51 

32 

48 

63 

39 

39 

70 

35 

35 

35 

39 

30 

72 

47 

60 

76 

31 

53 

47 


389 







plipl 








DIRECTIONS 


FOR 

DRYING SPECIMENS OF PLANTS FOR A HERBARIUM. 

REPRINTED FROM THE “ASIAN”, 

VoL. XXVIII; No. 401; P. 194: 

June 10, 1892. 










DIRECTIONS 


FOR 


DRYING SPECIMENS OF PLANTS FOR A HERBARIUM * 


The object of all botanical collection is to secure such 
specimens of the various herbs, shrubs and trees to be met with in a 
particular district as are capable of being studied in a herbarium. 
To be of use specimens must be dried, and the great object is to dry 
them thoroughly and to dry them quickly. 

For this purpose it is advisable to provide— 

First .—A quantity of the thick grey blotting paper made in 
Indian jails. The sheets of this when folded once measure from i8 
to 22 inches long by 12 to i6 inches wide. It is very cheap and 
supplies of it can always be had at the Botanical Garden, Calcutta. 
This is not only the most efficient drying paper made in India, it is 
surpassed by no material in the world. But at a pinch other kinds 
of paper will do, provided the surface be not glazed. Specimens will 
not, however, dry between the leaves of a note book or in a letter ; 
it is impossible to absorb moisture sufficiently rapidly if paper with 
a highly polished surface, like writing paper, be used. 

Second .—A few split bamboo or cane wicker-work frames with 
open meshes. These frames should be of the same size as the drying 
paper and can be obtained of a basket-maker in any part of India ; a 
few annas will purchase as man}^ as one requires. In Assam, Burma, 
or Malaya an obliging villager will put them together for one on the 
spot. It is not amiss to provide a few pairs of wire frarnes 

* These directions, which are drawn up at the request of Dr. King, c. h E., F. R. s., 
Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Garden, Calcutta, are essentially a new edition of the 
“ Directions” issued by that officer in 1875 with added suggestions, the result of experience, 
personal and administrative, derived during the past fifteen years from botanical research by 
Dr. King himself and his officers in the Transgangetic Peninsula and in the Eastern Hima¬ 
laya, provinces where the difficulties of collection are many times greater than they are in 
most parts of India or in any part of the North-west Himalaya. They are meant for the 
assistance of Indian officers, and in them reference is made solely to articles that it is easy 
for a resident in India to obtain. 


392 



( 3 ) 


of the same size and the same general character as the cane ones. The 
best kind of wire to use is galvanized wire: for sides of frame 
No. 7 W.G. (-fV') is a good size ; for meshes No. 14 W.G. (about yV”)- 
d'hese have the advantage of standing wear and tear, but possess the 
disadvantage of being heavier, and it is not advisable, especially if 
one is moving about a great deal, to lay in a large stock of them. 
Sheets of book-binders’ paste-board are useful when tying up bundles 
of dried specimens ; cane frames do, however, quite as well for this, 
and paste-board should never be used when drying the plants. If by 
any chance one comes into possession of the heavy wooden ‘drying- 
frames’ and ‘pressing-boards’ that are sometimes seen in Europe, it 
is advisable to take an early opportunity of burning them. 

Third .—Some thin dry waste paper is needed to put the speci¬ 
mens between when they are dry. Old newspaper is as good as any, 
and the handiest of the sizes available in India is that of the familiar 
Pioneer: the ordinary Daily needs folding or cutting ; the ordinary 
Weekly is too small to make bundles with measurements that accord 
with those of the drying paper and frames. A most fruitful source of 
trouble in transit and storage and of destruction to specimens is a want 
of uniformity between the size of the drying and of the storing papers. 

Fourth .— Some sheets of tarpaulin, in size 4 feet by 4^ feet. 
These are absolutely essential to tie the drying paper and the news¬ 
paper up in, and this is the most convenient size^ to provide. It is 
best to have about twice as many sheets as you possess “bundles” of 
emyty drying and storing paper combined. A number of sheets of 
thin oiled cloth— moj 7 tJdma~t\\Q size of the tarpaulin sheets, are also 
very convenient. 

Fifth. — As much stout rope as is necessary to tie up all the 
tarpaulin-covered bundles one is likely to have and a quantity of 
fairly stout string. 

Sixth —Something to hold specimens when out collecting. It is 
generally enough to see that one’s attendant cooly has the customary 
wicker basket ; make him line it with plantain leaves and put the 
specimens in it. But, especially in the rains, specimens come home in 
capital order if laid in a cloth or even if simply done up in a bundle ; 

* The size is regulated by that essential factor in all Indian travel—a cooly’s load. A 
comfortable load for an ordinary cooly in the plains is 30 seers (a hill man will carry more, 
but, all things considered, it is as well not to exceed the plains’ figure anywhere), and it is 
found best to divide this into two bundles, each w'eighing fifteen seers, measuring as it happens 
20 X 16 x 9 inches and containing 150—160 double sheets of drying paper. Bundles a foot 
in thickness with specimens that are being dried between the sheets weigh eight or nine 
seers and contain 90 to 100 sheets of paper. Of these a cooly easily carries three. News¬ 
paper for dry specimens weighs when empty, bulk for bulk, nearly the same as drying paper; 
when full of specimens one bundle nine inches thick becomes converted into five bundles a 
foot thick. 


393 


( 4 ) 


the only thing to be inculcated here is to avoid the use of the tin-box 
—the orthodox ‘vasculum’ that the dealer in botanical paraphernalia 
insists on advertising. 

Finally, attach a kukri-frog to the sword- or shikar-belt, and never 
go into the jungle without putting on that belt and placing the kukri 
in its frog. This weapon, the well-known curved Gurkha knife, is 
invaluable to the botanist; it is light and handy, and it is his axe and 
bill-hook, his spud and pruning-knife all in one. 

So much for material, now for method. Gather and dry the 
whole plant whenever this is possible ; when it is impossible to get 
root, stem and branches together, take portions of the branches 12 
to 18 inches long, always selecting those that are slender and in flower 
or in a more or less advanced state of fruit. Usually such pieces are 
sufficient, but it is sometimes desirable that more than this should be 
taken, as for instance when a tree has flowers only on its stem, or 
when a tree has unarmed branches and yet has spines on its trunk: 
in such cases a piece of bark and superficial stem (carefully noted as 
coming from the same tree as that which yields the branch specimens) 
should be taken to illustrate the fact. Plants or pieces of branches to 
be of the highest botanical value should show in the same specimen 
buds, leaves, flower buds, flowers and fruits in all stages up to ripe¬ 
ness. It is, however, often impossible to find all these together in 
the same branch or even on the same plant. In that case a plant 
should not be omitted ; flowers alone or fruit alone should by all 
means be taken ; another plant or another season often supplies the 
deficiency, and other collections sometimes contain the missing parts. 
The only thing to be remembered is that leaf specimens—‘ samples’ 
of a plant which show neither itS' flower nor its fruit—are worth 
nothing, and that their collection is a waste of effort. 

The attention of the collector should be principally directed to 
trees, and after them to small uninteresting-looking plants. Shrubs 
and showy-flowered species that attract attention by their colours or 
that can be seen without looking up or looking down may be trusted 
to take care of themselves. When one entrusts an untrained collec¬ 
tor to obtain specimens, care should be taken that he does not confine 
his attention to the weeds of waste places and of hedgerows around vil¬ 
lages ; these are usually widely-spread species of little botanical interest. 

It has been already said that the specimens have to be dried tho¬ 
roughly and quickly. If not dried thoroughly, they mould and decay ; 
if not dried quickly, they become unduly discoloured, their leaves 
drop off and their flowers become disintegrated, making it afterwards 
always difficult and often unsafe to say that particular leaves and par- 


394 


( 5 ) 

ticular flowers or fruits belong to the same specimen. When putting 
out specimens for drying, lay upon one of the bamboo frames or upon 
a wire frame of the same size four double sheets of drying paper. On 
the topmost sheet spread as many specimens (which should, however, 
always be of the same individual gathering) as the sheet will contain 
in as natural positions as possible, taking care to flatten out the leaves 
and to prevent the flowers from curling up. If the specimens be 
too long for the paper, fold them carefully or cut them in two. 
But avoid laying one part of a specimen above another ; if the leaves 
or the flowers be too numerous to make this precaution possible, take 
some of them off, but always leave little bits of stalk to show whence 
leaves or flowers have been removed. Above this layer of specimens 
lay four more double sheets of paper; again on the uppermost spread a 
new layer of specimens, taking care that over the parts where' the speci¬ 
mens of the previous layer exert most pressure those of the new layer 
shall exert little or none at all. Again lay four double sheets of paper 
and again spread a layer of specimens, repeating the process till there 
are six layers of specimens thus accommodated. Above the last place 
four more sheets of paper, above all a second bamboo or wire frame, and 
tie up the bundle thus made with string sufficiently tightly to prevent 
the specimens from slipping about between the sheets of drying paper. 
In drying thick stems it is often advantageous to split them vertically 
into two, and where the plant is fleshy the central softer part of the 
stem may also be taken out and thrown away. Fleshy fruits may be 
cut into thin transverse and longitudinal slices to facilitate drying. But 
where this is done, it is worth while also to attempt to dry some speci¬ 
mens of the same fruits uncut. Stone fruits and berries are often very 
difficult to dry if taken ripe ; unripe or already shrivelled ones should 
therefore be gathered, only the colour of the ripe fruit being noted and 
ripe seeds collected and preserved. Soft fruits are best of all preserved 
in spirit. When any very succulent part is to be preserved, it is f)ften 
a good plan to wrap a sheet of the drying paper round it so as to form 
an absorbent pad. And always when drying soft structures like suc¬ 
culent stems or gourds or berry and plum-like fruits, also when drying 
hard fruits that are fragile and when drying fungi, it is advisable to in¬ 
tersperse narrow but thick rolls of paper in such a manner as to obviate 
all save the very gentlest pressure on them while they are being dried. 
A little experience will show the colletor that there are many pod and 
capsule fruits that will, as they dry, break up and shed their contents, 
no matter what care be bestowed on their drying or what delicacy be 
exercised in handling them. Many of these, however, will remain intact 
if judiciously bound with threads while still green and before being 


395 


( 6 ) 


placed in the drying paper ; others can often be kept together if 
encased in a small net—such the natives of many parts of India will be 
induced for a small fee to make. When care of the kind is needed and 
taken, the excellence of the specimen that results amply repays the 
trouble bestowed, since in all herbaria it is usual to find that fruits of 
this kind, even when they belong to familiar plants, are but poorly 
represented. It has been said that all pressing boards should be dis¬ 
carded, this is not because they are cumbersome merely, but because 
they are positively disadvantageous. The straps that accompany these 
boards are a constant temptation to pull too tight and so exert a pres¬ 
sure that is always destructive. There should be just enough pressure 
after leaves and flowers have been flattened out to keep them so ; to 
effect this the strings with which the bundles are tied should, as has 
already been said, be drawn tight enough to prevent the specimens 
from moving between the sheets of drying paper. This is the best 
gauge of the amount of pressure necessary: it cannot conveniently be 
less—it never should be greater. Even when used properly, straps 
are in India a source of vexation; they go so readily out of repair. It is 
therefore best to begin by parting with them —giving them away grati¬ 
fies the attendant who receives them and saves his master all further 
trouble with stitches that come undone and buckles that get broken. 

In laying down a rule as to the number of sheets to be placed 
between different layers of specimens, a number has been chosen that 
‘will be found in all ordinary cases sufificient. But a definite figure is 
mentioned only because a collector just beginning work prefers some 
precise rule to go by. In reality the amount of paper to be inter¬ 
posed between two layers will depend on the nature of the plant dried 
and the facilities the collector has for drying it, the second circum¬ 
stance being as a general rule of infinitely more consequence to him 
than the first. A very brief experience will show that for many herba¬ 
ceous plants fewer, and for some thick or even thin-stemmed succulent 
ones and for certain fruits many more intermediate sheets are 
necessary. But what one must keep in view, and insist on his native 
collectors keeping in view, is that whatever number of layers of speci¬ 
mens a bundle may accommodate, it should never consist of more than 
30 double sheets of drying paper or be more than 5 inches thick. 
Delicate flowers should be carefully put into paper when gathered: a 
small portable blotting pad is a very good thing to carry about for 
this purpose. There they can be kept flat till the close of the day’s 
collection, when the sheets containing them can be laid in the drying 
paper along with the specimens to which they belong and along with 
the notes that refer to both. If one does not grudge the trouble and 


396 


( 7 ) 


if one is collecting in the cold season or in the hot weather, the very 
best way to dry delicate plants is to take a bundle or two of drying 
paper to the field and lay the plants between their sheets as gathered. 

Some very succulent plants and others with fine but rigid leaves, 
like pines, require to be plunged for an instant into boiling water ere 
they are pressed. In this case the superabundant moisture must be 
absorbed by a cloth or by blotting paper. Orchids should be placed 
in strong spirit before they are laid in the drying paper : they are best 
placed in spirit at the close of the day and taken out at the close of 
the day following when specimens are being changed. But care must 
be taken, while seeing that the pseudo-bulbs and leaves are covered 
completely by the spirit, to see also that the flowers protrude above 
its surface. Ferns, mosses and other cryptogamous plants may be 
generally dried in the common way ; those that grow in tufts should 
be separated by the hand to form neat specimens. Seaweeds require 
a slight washing in fresh water, and common blotting paper is the best 
material for removing the moisture from this tribe of plants. Fresh¬ 
water plants, besides being preserved by drying in the ordinary way, 
are often, like soft fruits, best preserved in spirit. Strong spirit should 
not be used however, as it renders the specimen brittle ; the most 
convenient strength is 50 per cent, i.e., half of pure spirit and half of 
water. The mixture should be made as required, but time should be 
given it to cool before immersing the specimen. 

Thereare two methods of makingnotes concerning specimens. One* 
is to note the particulars concerning each on a separate page of a num¬ 
bered note-book and to attach a slip of paper bearing the nitmberoi the 
note to the specimen. The other is to attach the slip of paper on which 
the note is written to the specimen to which the note refers. Each 
method has conveniences of its ov/n, and for collectors who form a 
private harbarium the first has not a few advantages ; on the whole, 
however, the second method is the one that will in the long run be pre¬ 
ferred by most. But both plans to be of any value call for this : any 
particulars to be noted should be written day by day and placed beside 
the specimens when they are first laid out in drying paper. If written up 
and attached afterwards mistakes are certain to occur. The particulars 
most worth noting are (in order of importance)—date when gathered 
and locality; height above sea-level of the latter ; colour of flower 
and fruit; habit and, when a plant is cultivated, this fact; also habitat. 

The drying paper should be changed afterthe specimens have lain 
in it for a day, after that when they have lain in the fresh dry paper 
for three days, after that once or twice at longer intervals. It will 
then be found that the specimens are dry. The moist paper removed 


397 


( 8 ) 


should be thoroughly dried by the sun or before a fire. As soon as dry 
it is fit for use again, and, if treated carefully, the same paper may be 
used over and over again so long as it remains untorn. 

Changing the paper between plants is a very simple matter, as the 
specimens after having been dried a little can be lifted with great ease. 
In the case of thin-leaved and delicate plants it is sometimes necessary 
to treat the sheets of paper on which they are laid as part of the speci¬ 
men, removing these when the papers are changed with the specimens 
undisturbed upon them to the dry sheets. The uppermost sheets of 
the bundle where this has been done should be marked, and when next 
the papers in it are changed, the opposite side should be the one 
from which the papers are first removed. This ensures a renewal of 
both papers for every specimen with each alternate change. 

This is advice that the collector is urged to begin by following 
implicitly. Probably he will in a short time ignore it altogether ; to 
begin with its neglect will only lead to disappointment, and any 
modification of it must depend entirely on his own appreciation of the 
atmospheric conditions of his station, and on his facilities for drying 
his specimens artificially and so of becoming independent of these 
conditions. In the cold weather in most parts of India the paper does 
not need to be often changed, while in the hot weather experience will 
very soon indicate a considerable class of plants that, if placed in 
thoroughly dry paper and exposed in very thin bundles to the sun, do 
not require to be looked at or changed at all until placed in the news¬ 
paper, At that season of the year a long plank, a flat rock, a sheet of 
corrugated iron, on which to place the bundles in a single layer in the 
full sunshine (care being taken to turn the bundles over three or four 
times a day) afford almost ideal drying facilities. Succulent plants and 
plants with large or with soft fruits should be in bundles by themselves; 
these bundles should be seen to every night and dry paper provided for 
them. Plants of this class, no matter how great one’s drying facilities 
may be, cannot receive fresh paper too often ; mould is certain to attack 
them; it does so, indeed, more readily when they are being rapidly than 
when they are being slowly dried, if the paper containing them be not 
constantly changed. But during the rains, or when the atmosphere is 
charged with moisture (and this is only too often the case in Burma 
and Assam), it is a much more difficult matter to dry specimens. Still 
it can be done. If one is stationed near an ice-machine or a saw-mill 
or any industry that requires a steam-engine, the drying of specimens 
is reduced to a matter of diplomacy. Somewhere near the boiler of a 
river steamer too there is an atmosphere of excellent quality from the 
botanist’s point of view. Still better when one has for a neighbour a 


398 


( 9 ) 

tea-planter (and he is certain to be the most obliging of men), there 
is in the dry air of the tea-house an ideal botanical atmosphere. And 
when none of these are available, there is still a very simple and not at 
all an expensive plan that can be adopted. This is to convert a mud 
or brick outhouse into a drying chamber. All openings require to be 
closed up save a small one (that probably will require to be made) near 
the floor-level, and another, also small (that probabl)^ already exists), 
about 4 or 5 feet up the wall and on the opposite side of the room 
from the other. The door must fit fairly tightly. A large chafing 
dish (such as one’s ‘ khansamah’ uses daily in the cook-house, and 
which is to be obtained in almost any bazar—if not obtainable a subs¬ 
titute is easily improvised) placed in the middle of the room with a 
charcoal fire lit in it completes the equipment. The door being shut, 
sufficient air passes from opening to opening to keep the fire alive, 
and yet not enough to prevent this fire from rendering all of air the 
room contains almost absolutely moistureless. Shelves on which to 
lay the bundles or rods to which to tie them can be easily fitted up, 
and with a room such as this at command one is quite independent 
of the weather. Where an outhouse is not available, it is not a very 
costly matter to build one of bricks, of mud, or of corrugated iron, 
where any of these materials are available ; where they are not, it is 
possible with care to dry one’s specimens in a similar hut with mud- 
plastered ekra walls and with a thatched roof. Such a house, how¬ 
ever may catch fire, and it is advisable to build it at some distance 
from one’s quarters and not to have all one’s drying paper in it at a 
time. The general plan of the drying house, whatever its material, 
is simplicity itself: ground space 6—lo feet square ; walls 6—7 feet 
high ; doorway the smallest compatible with the possibility of ingress ; 
lower opening 6 inches from the ground in any wall and 4 inches square; 
upper opening in wall opposite, 18 inches from the eaves and 6 inches 
square. It is, perhaps, advisable that neither opening be on the side 
exposed to the quarter whence the prevailing rainy season wind blows. 

When moving from place to place in the rainy season collecting 
is by no means so easy as at other times. One must then follow 
implicitly the method of repeated change of papers detailed first, and 
troublesome as it is to change papers at the close of a long wet day’s 
march, this trouble is really well repaid in the end. There are just a 
few things that it is well worth remembering, A few specimens well 
preserved are worth a whole hayrick of half-rotten material. Not 
that the collector, particularly when beginning work, should venture 
to decide as to what plants may be left uncollected. The true col¬ 
lector brings everything and leaves it entirely to the botanist who has 


399 


( 10 ) 


the good fortune to possess or have access to a herbarium to reject 
or throw away a specimen. Never move on a botanical journey with¬ 
out having each bundle of paper in its own tarpaulin cover. Always 
see to it oneself at the commencement of the morning march that 
each tarpaulin thoroughly covers the bundle to which it belongs. When¬ 
ever one can make or take an opportunity of getting the bundles 
near a fire, do so. On returning to head-quarters, do not lose a 
moment before getting the specimens into fresh paper and bestow¬ 
ing them in the drying chamber. 

There is another method of preservingspecimens collected during 
the rains which might be of use where one is taking a very long jour¬ 
ney, during the whole extent ofwhich it will be impossible for him to 
halt for a day or two, so as to take or make an opportunity for redry¬ 
ing a damp paper. This is the method employed by the well-known 
African traveller Dr. Schweinfurth. The specimens at the end of a 
day’s journey are laid in thick blotting paper, as they are in the ordi¬ 
nary method, only now no more than a single half sheet of paper need 
be placed between each layer of specimens. When a bundle has been 
formed, it is held up, so that one corner is higher than the rest. 
Spirit is poured gently on the paper at this corner, and is continued 
to be poured until the paper composing the bundle has absorbed so 
much that it begins to drip from the opposite lowest corner. Then the 
bundle is laid flat in the bottom of a tin-box of suitable length and 
breadth. Other similar bundles are formed and placed above the first. 
When the box is full, the lid is once for all soldered down, and the 
specimens keep perfectly till the end of the journey. With this as with 
the ordinary bottling spirit process the chief difficulty is that a spirit 
sufficiently strong to ensure that the specimens shall keep renders 
them exceedingly brittle, while a spirit so weak that the flowers are 
not spoiled by it for future herbarium work does not protect them 
permanently from decay. Excellent as this system is, it is better, there¬ 
fore, to use it cautiously and in all cases to consider it but a tem¬ 
porary measure. Use, therefore, a weak spirit, and, when the journey 
is over, prepare the specimens by drying in the ordinary way. 

Specimens that have been sufficiently dried should be laid be¬ 
tween single sheets of newspaper. When unusually woody, like pines 
and oaks, or when there are large fruits attached, the specimens should 
have rolls of paper interspersed in the manner already described as ne¬ 
cessary when drying them, and at the same time care should be used to 
distribute the specimens pretty equally over the sheets. It is needless 
to add that all plants when dried ought to be transmitted to the Bota¬ 
nical Garden, Calcutta, with the least possible delay. In the cold and 


■400 


( n ) 

hot seasons it is best to transmit them, bundle by bundle, as they get 
ready, by parcels post. In the rains it is not so advisable to do so if 
the distance be considerable, and if (as in then frequently the case with 
frontier districts) there is likely to be a delay in parcel transmission 
and probably a very inadequate storing accommodation on the part of 
the post office for the articles delayed. It is of little advantage after¬ 
wards to blame the postal authorities : no amount of upbraiding will 
replace a lost collection. As a matter of fact the post office does its 
very best everywhere, and knowing this, one should not incur risks 
where one knows that delays are likely or are even only remotely 
possible. When sending such bundles, it is well to put several sheets 
of news-paper out-side the outermost specimen, and besides a cane 
frame outside all, on both sides, to intersperse cane frames at inter¬ 
vals of about 30 specimens throughout the bundle. The size of 
bundle will be limited by postal regulations : the thicker it is possible 
to make it, provided always the specimens are thoroughly dry, the 
safer its contents will be. Outside the cane frames a covering of the 
momjama cloth should be sewed ; outside this another covering of 
cloth (ordinary drill or long-cloth is excellent) also sewed^ and it is 
far better to tie on a stout tag with the address than to write the 
address on the parcel itself When it is necessary to keep dry speci¬ 
mens for a few months during the rains until considerable numbers 
have accumulated, they may be sent in boxes by the easiest available 
carriage route. If they are to come all the way by cart or rail, it is 
sufficient to line these boxes with wax-cloth momjdma ; this ensures 
the contents remaining dry if the boxes be exposed to passing showers 
at any time. But if in any part of the journey the boxes are to be 
exposed to the risks of ferry or river or sea transit, it is best to put 
them inside a tinlined box (and to have the lining carefully soldered 
down) before despatching them. 

When specimens have to be kept for more than one season, or 
where the collector retains a set of specimens for his owm use, it is 
necessary to poison them. Unless this is done, they are sure to suffer 
and ultimately to be quite destroyed by the depredations of insects. 
Poisoning them, however, is a very simple matter. Some corrosive 
sublimate should be put in strong spirit; may be dropped into a 
gallon of methylated spirit, and as the spirit will not dissolve anything 
like so much, this ensures that it will always have in solution as much 
corrosive sublimate as it can hold. The mixture should be painted on 
with a brush. When all the specimens in a bundle have been poisoned 
on one side, reverse the bundle and paint them on the opposite side; 
never lift or turn a specimen when poisonining iU It is often supposed 


401 


( 12 ) 


that the effects of one such dose of so strong a poison must be per¬ 
manent, No more disastrous fallacj'- exists. Still no definite rule 
can be laid down as to when rcpoisoning should be done. One is 
always seeing one’s specimens at intervals : when any sign of mis¬ 
chief is apparent at once give another dose. 

Calcutta^ 1890. 


From the Journal^ Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LXII, Part II, No.j, 

1893. 


153 


Xote on some methods of preparing Botanical specimens, communicating 
Memoranda by MESSRS. C. MARIES, F.L.S., and R. Pantling.— 
By D. Prain. 

[Read June 5th.] 

Usually the preparation of botanical specimens is easy; some na¬ 
tural families, however, give a good deal of trouble. Those who have 
private herbaria are as interested to hear of improved methods of treat¬ 
ing such families, as are those who look after public collections. The 
writer, therefore, would call general attention to modes of dealing with 
three troublesome families— Magnoliacece, ConifercB and Orchidacecc. 

I. Magnoliace^. The Champak familyis not troublesome to pre¬ 
serve as totheleaves, buttheflowers are apt to go to pieces. If, however, 
pieces of blotting-paper are carefully insinuated between the petals 
before the specimen is laid in drying-paper, and if the specimen is then 
rapidly fire-dried, even adult flowers may be preserved entire. Nothing, 
however, prevents the shrinkage of the large leathery petals. In this 
order shrinkage is so excessive and so unequal, that in the case of 


402 


154 ( 13 ) 

herbarium specimens the estimation of the size of the flowers becomes 
to some extent guess-work. 

Those whoknow Rangoon may recollectthepractice of selling bottles 
of flowers on the stairs of the Shwe-Dagon Pagoda. Unless, however, 
their stay has been long enough, or their interest sufficiently great, to 
have led them to notice that the flowers in these bottles are not fresh 
but preserved, they may have supposed, as the writer did, that the 
medium in which the flowers are kept is water. 

Every one, however, has not been so void of curiosity. When 
Assistant Surgeon C. L. Bose,* was in Rangoon in 1885, he was struck 
by the length of time the flowers were kept, and brought somewith him 
to Calcutta for examination. Dr. Warden, then chemical examiner, 
and Mr. Bose found on examining the fluid that it was a solution of 
Alum. The solution is of no special strength ; the Burman, being 
a happy-go-lucky individual puts some Alum into the water along with 
the flowers and is not particular as to the amount. 

Mr. Bose brought only Champak petals; some of these are in shape, 
size, colour and consistencemuchasthey werewhen taken from thetree 
eight years ago. Here then we seem to have the. means of overcoming 
the difficulty, hitherto insoluble, of preserving the natural size in speci¬ 
mens of Magnoliaceous flowers, 

Thoughonly 672 «;??/«/^was brought by Mr. Bose, the writer recollects 
seeing Plumieria and Nymphcea flowers as well, and a bottle in which 
Dr. Warden placed some green leaves with a 1% Alum solution at the 
time he examined the Rangoon bottle has its contents very much as 
they were when he put them in. There is, therefore, no reason why the 
use of Alum solution should be confined to Magnolia flowers. 

It should be understood that the use of Alum solution is only sug¬ 
gested as auxiliary to the usual means of preserving specimens. Wet 
preparations are to be avoided; they are difficult to handle, difficult to 
keep, difficult to house, and still more difficult to carry about. But 
occasionsarisewhen wetspecimensare of the greatest moment assupple- 
ments todried ones, and the Burmese preservative has the advantages 
over spiritof notdiscolouringthespecimen or rendering it brittle. Most 
important of all, one can carry Alum about as a solid and make a 
solution when required. 

If the bottles are not carefullysealed the specimens do not keep. The 
flowers immersed in the fluid do not suffer, but as the water evaporates 
theflowers at the top get exposed to the pair, decay, and fall ina floccu- 
lent mass to the bottom. This flocculent matter keeps pushing up others 
to undergo the same decomposition. But from a well-stoppered bcttle— 
* Assistant to the Chemical Examiner to Government, Calcutta. 


403 


( 14 ) 


155 


a glass stopper with wax is best—the fluid does not evaporate ; the 
flowers, therefore, do not reach the air and seem to keep indefinitely. 

II. Conifers. The Pine, Fir and Spruce family is usually very 
troublesome to preserve both in the field and afterwards in the Her¬ 
barium, from the readiness with which the cones fall to pieces and the 
leaves (needles) drop off. In the Calcutta Herbarium there are a num¬ 
ber of beautiful specimens of Japanese Conifers presented by Mr. C. 
Maries, F.L.S.,* who collected them. The writer, anxious to learn 
the secret of the success with which so troublesome a family had been 
treated, asked Mr. Maries if he would kindly explain his method. Mr. 
Maries’ reply, which he has courteously permitted the writer to com¬ 
municate to the Society, is as follows ;— 

specimens of the y 4 i^zVjorPzV^,«sectionaregenerally rather 
‘‘difficult to dry. When I was in the island of Yesso, in the North 
‘‘ Pacific, I was very much troubled with them. One night I arrived 
‘‘ very wet at my rooms and stacked my branches of Abies, with the 
‘‘ cones attached, round a big charcoal fire. I fell asleep and woke up 
‘‘ next morning to find my specimens dried beautifully. After this I 
‘‘ always dried them slowly over a charcoal fire, first wiring or wrapping 
‘‘up the cones. All fir-cones, except Pine, or Spruce, or Cedar, should 
‘‘ be tied up either with cotton or wire immediately they are gathered. 
‘‘ The Spruce section is the most difficult to dry, even roasting is not 
always a success.” 

Mr. Maries goes on to say:—“The way I dry ferns and leaves 
“ of trees for fitting up my bird-cases” (in the Gwalior State Museum) 
“ to preserve their natural shape, is to take some very clean, washed 
“ sand, arrange the leaves in a clean box and fill in with hot sand, and 
“ keep at a temperature of ioo° to 120° Fh. or even more. They soon 
“dry (I imagine Spruce would dry like this if very hot) and flowers 
“ dry beautifully in this way, some keeping their natural colours in a 
“ most remarkable manner. When I was young and living in London, an 
“ old gardener taught me this; he used it for ferns and roses for winter 
“ decorations when fresh ferns and flowers were scarce. All the dried 
“ flowers one sees in florists’ shops in London are dried in hot sand. 
C. Maries.” 

HI. Orchidace^. The Orchid family is perhaps the most trou¬ 
blesome of all natural families to represent in Herbaria. In all the 
epiphytic kinds the leaves and, in most of them, the flowers also are apt 
to drop off when the specimens are dried in the ordinary way, while 
even in ground Orchids the pressure that has to be applied during dry¬ 
ing usually so distorts the flower that a true conception of the relative 
* Superintendent of the State Gardens and State Museum at Gwalior. 


404 


156 


( 15 ) 


position of its parts becomes impossible. This is very unfortunate, 
because there is no natural order where a proper understanding of the 
position of parts, particularly of the lip and the column, is so necessary. 
Spirit preparations are most unsatisfactory. If the spirit is sufficiently 
strong to preserve the flowers the parts become so brittle that when 
handled they go to pieces ; if weak enough to prevent this hardening 
and consequent friability the spirit does not adequately preserve the 
specimens. The jars and bottles in which the specimens are placed, 
moreover, are very apt to get broken, and any one who has tried it will 
testify to the worry that is caused by the necessity of having to carry 
about a stock of alcohol. Dr. Schweinfurth when travelling in Africa, 
made useofamost excellent modification of the method of preservation 
in spirit. He laid his specimens between sheets of drying paper, laid 
these in tin-boxesandsoldered them upafter soaking the paperthoroughly 
with spirit. He was thus able greatly to reduce the initial stock of 
alcohol and was freed from the subsequent anxiety of possible break¬ 
ages. But the objections to spirit as a preserving medium for flo\i ers 
are not obviated by this mode of applying it, and it remainstobe seen 
whether the Alum solution will answer as a substitute if used in this 
way. 

In the meantime Mr. R. Bantling,who for many years has made 
a special study of Orchids, has perfected a method of drying them so far 
in advance of anything hitherto accomplished that it is highly desirable, 
that the details of his process should be made known. At the writer’s 
request Mr. Bantling has supplied these details and like Mr. Maries, 
has courteously given him permission to communicate the accounttothe 
Society. This memorandum is given below ; it will be noticed that it 
consists of a happy combination, suitably modified, of the ordinary me¬ 
thod of fire-drying recommended for all ordinary plants with the hot- 
sand process mentioned by Mr. Maries as that practised by florists in 
Europe. 

“ To dry Orchid Specimens .—In order to preserve Orchids so that 
“the leaves and flowers remain intact and do not fall away in fragments 
“ as invariably happens to epiphytal species when pressed in the ordi- 
“ nary way between drying paper, the procedure to be adopted should 
“ be as follows. Brocure a light metal box—14 inches, by 12 inches, 
“ by 6 inches deep is a convenient size—and place over the bottomhalf- 
“ an-inch of sand. Arrange a specimen between two sheets of thin 
“ paper inside the box and cover over with a layer of sand taking care, 
“ as far as possible, that the interstices between leaves, etc., are filled 
“ up. Repeat this until the box is full, then place it on a stove or above 
* First Assistant, Department of Cinchona Cultivation in Bengal. 


405 


( i6 ) 


157 


“ a fire and dry with a brisk heat. No weights for pressing are neces- 
“ sary. As a general rule, the sand at the commencement of drying 
“ should not be allowed to attain a greater heat than can be borne by 
“ the hand, and this should be lessened as drying proceeds or the flowers 
“ may become scorched and rendered useless for purposes of dissection. 

“ Occasionally species {Dendrobium Pierardi Roxb., and Phajus 
“ alba Lindl.) are met with whose perianths will adhere to the paper ; 
“ the removal of the perianthcannotthen be effected without mutilation. 
“ This may be obviated by using porous drying-paper or blotting-paper 
“ instead of the thin kind recommended above. 

“The advantages of drying in hot sand as compared with the 
“ universally adopted method in paper are:— First, rapidity in pre- 
“ paring specimens ; plants belonging to such genera as Saccolabium, 
“ Vanda, Cleisostoma, etc., being ready within a week against a period of 
“ three to four months by the old method. Secondly ; when finished the 
“specimens will be found preserved in their entirety and will not fall 
“ to pieces. The column and lip will be found to have suffered little, 

‘ as the pressure of the sand is not sufficient to cause any material dam- 
“age to these organs”.—R. Pantling. 

The boxes that Mr. Pantling has found handiest for his purpose 
are old kerosine tins cut through lengthways ; one is placed within the 
other to give more strength to the tin wdth a rivet or two hammered 
through the seams as the solder runs when the boxes are over the fire. 
The only thing to be guarded against in the process is the adhesion of 
the flowers of certain species to the paper, and Mr. Pantling shows how 
this is easily overcome. 

The possibilities of this method either as recommended by Mr. 
Pantling or with slight modifications for the drying of succulent species 
generally, such as the Cactus family and fleshy members of the Spurge 
family, as well as for families like Scitaniine(X —the ginger famiiy-^and 
for water plants, where the flowers are very delicate and therefore very 
difficult to dry, seem considerable and the plan is well worth trying for 
them as well as for orchids. 


406 


INDEX. 

[The references are to the numbers at the outer bottom corners of the pages.] 


Abor tribes, 3 

Ahrus 'precatorius^ Linn., 61, 120, 222, 
228, 284 

„ pulchellusy Wall., 120 
Abutilon indicum^ Gr. Don,, 329 
„ populifolium, Gr. Don., 330 
Acacia concinna, DC., 122, 284 
„ eburnea, Willd., 87 
„ Farnesiana, Willd., 29 
,, pennata, Willd., 122 
Acalypha fallacy MuelL-Arg., 360 

„ Hochstetteriy Muell.-Arg., 360 
„ indica, Linn., 360 

„ indica, Prain, 360 

„ MemtrialiSy A. Juss., 360, 
Acanthophora Thieriiy Lamour., 151 
Accretive action of surf, 98 
Acheen Head, 94 

Achyranthes aspera, Linn., 42, 134, 181, 
232, 355 

„ hidentata, Bl., 356 

„ lanata, Linn., 355 

„ porphyristachya, Wall., 134, 

356 

Acrostichufn appendiculatumy Willd., 147, 
296 

„ atireum, Linn., 296 

,, costatum, Wall., 296 

„ scandenSy J. Sm., 147, 226, 

266 

Actephila e^ceUay Muell.-Arg., 289. 
Adenanthera pavonina, Benth., 122 
Adenostemma reticulatumy DC., 344 

„ viscosum, Forst, 41, 62, 

127, 179, 344 

Adiantum lunulaturriy Burm., 67, 295 
Aecidium esculentumy Bard , 87 
Aegiceras Majus, Gaertn., 128 
Aegle MarmeloSy Corr., 332 
Aerial roots of Avicennia, 54 
Aerides multiflorunij Boxb , 138, 225 
Aerua lanatay Juss , 42, 232, 355 
Ae^chynomene grandiflora, Linn-, 335 
„ spinulosa, Boxb , 335 

Aganosma marginata, G. Don, 287 
Agati grandiflora, Desv., 335 
Agave Cantula, Boxb-, 363 
„ vivipara, Linn., 35, 363 


Ageratum aquaticum, Boxb., 344 

„ conyzoides, Linn., 38, 62, 344 

„ cordifolium, Boxb., 344 

Aglaia andamanica, Hiern, 116 
Agriculture among the Nagas, 14 
Ajuga disticha, Boxb., 355 
Akati, 309 

Alangium sundanum, Miq., 229 
Alhizzia Lehhelc, Benth., 122 
„ procera, Benth., 61, 122 
Alchornea javensis, Muell.-Arg., 233 
„ rugosa, Muell.-Arg., 233 

Allamanda cathartica, Linn., 30 
Allium Cepa, Linn., 33 
,, sativum, Linn., 33 
Allophyllus Cohbe, BL, 118, 228, 283, 333 
Alnus nepalensis, Ham., 14 
Alocasia fornicata, Schott., 143 
,, indica, Linn., 384 
Alsodeia bengalensis. Wall., 112 
Alternanthera sessilis, B. Br., 34 
Alyssicarpus vaginalis, DC., 40, 120, 178 
Amarantus spinos^lS, Linn., 39 
,, viridiSy Linn., 39, 355 
„ sp,, 32 
Ameni, 316 

Amherstia nohilis. Wall, 34 
Ammannia haccifera, Linn., 41, 340 
,, vesicatoria Boxb., 340 
Amoora decandra, Hem., 283 

„ RohituJca, W. & A., 116, 283 
Amorphophallus bulbifer, BL, 143, 294 
„ campanulatuSj BL, 294 

„ oncophyllus, Prain, 294 

,, 7*eXy Prain, 293 

,, tuberculiger, Schott., 143, 

294 

„ v^rosus, N. E. Br., 294 

„ sp., 143 

Anamirta Cocculus, W. & A., 279 
Ananas saliva, Adans., 32 
Andaman Flora, the non-indigenous 
SPECIES OF THE, 25 ; basis of discus¬ 
sion of, 27; cultivated plants among, 
28 ; distributional features of, 47 ; in¬ 
terest of, 25; intrusion of, 41; mode of 
introduction of, 45; note by Kurz on, 
26 ; rate of inti’oduction of, 48; weeds 
among, 37 


407 




2 


Index. 


Andaman Group, history of settle¬ 
ments in, 47; non-indigenous species 
in, 25 ; physiographical relationships 
of, to Barren Island, 274;—to Coco 
Group, 93;—to Diamond Island, 76;— 
to Narcondam, 274;—to the Nicobars, 
272; reefs in the, 98; thread-bight in 
the, 150. 

Andaman Sea, 255; bottom contour of 
the, 272 
An derut, 319 

Andropogon contortus, hinn., 40, 146, 373 
muricatuSj'Retz., 373 
„ pseudo-ischaemum, Nees, 40 

,, Sorghum, Rosb., 374 

„ squarrrosus, Linn, f., 373 

Aneilema ovalifolium, Hook, f., 364 
„ ovatum, Wall., 140 

Angami Nagas, the, 1; agriculture 
among, 14; appearance of, 4; beliefs 
of, 18; diseases among, 23 ; domestic 
economy of, 17; dress of, 5 ; dwellings 
of, 7; external polity of, 10 , 16; his¬ 
tory of, 4; hunting operations of, 12 ; 
music among, 5; occupations of, 5; 
ornaments Tf^orn by, 6 ; social polity 
of, 21 ; traditions among, 3; villages 
of, 7; weapons of, 8 
Angelonia salicarisefolia, H. B. K., 38 
Anisomales ovata, R. Br., 65,133, 180,353 
Anodendron paniculatum A. DC., 129, 287 
Anona muricata, Linn., 328 
„ squamosa, Linn., 28 
,, reticulata, Linn., 34 
Anthistiria scandens Raxb , 43 
ANTHOCOMA FLATESCENS, Zoll , ON THE 
SYNONYMY OF, 247. 

Anthocomaflavescens, Zoll, 249 
Antiaris toxicaria, Leschen., 66 , 138, 290. 
Antitaxis calocarpa, Kurz, 111, 279 
Apluda aristata, Linn., 374 
Apodytes andamanica, Kurz, 283 
Aporosa villosula, Kurz, 136 
Apostasis in inflorescence of Acacia 
eburnea, 88 

Appearance of Angami Nagas, physical, 5 
Aquatic plants in the Coco group, 203 
Arachis hypogaea, Linn., 336 
Araclinechthra andamanica, Hume, 238 
Arbor ovigera, Rumph., 57 
,, regis, Rumph., 57 
Ardeola Grayii, Sykes, 240 
Ardisia humilis, Vahl., 128, 224, 230, 286 
„ littoralis, Andr., 224, 230 
Areca Catechu, Linn., 33, 233, 364 
Argyreia Hookeri, Clarke, 130 
,, lanceolata, Choisy, 130 

„ tiliaefolia, Wight, 130 

Arhopala centaurus, Fabr., 243 
Aristolochia Tagala, Ch. & Schlecht., 135, 
232, 288. 

408 


Arracan, 53, 94 

Artocarpus Chaplasha, Roxb., 66 

„ Gomeziana, Walk, 138 

„ incisa, Forst, 361 

„ integrifolia, Linn, f., 362 

„ Lakoocha, Roxb., 290 
Arum campanulatum, Roxb., 294 
„ Colocasia, Linn., 370 
Arung Nagas, 3 

Asclepias asthmatica, Willd., 347 
„ gigantea, Willd., 346 

„ suierosa, Roxb., 347 

Asparagus racemosus, Roxb., 140 
Asplenium falcatum, Lamk., 296 
„ Nidus, Linn., 296 

Assam, 2 

Avicennia officinalis, Linn., 65, 133; aerial 
roots of, 54 

Avifauna of Narcondam and Barren 
Island, derivation of the, 247 
Ballota disticha, Linn., 353 
Bamhusa Brandisii, Munro, 35 
Bangaro, 399 

Barclaya lonqifolia. Wall., 42 
Bareil Mts., 2 

Barleria ciliata, Hume, 351 
„ cristata, Prain, 351 
„ Prionitis, Linn , 351 
Barren Island, on the present con¬ 
dition OF, 81; coconut trees in, 270 ; 
column of steam from crater, 82; 
deposit of sulphur in, 82 ; description 
of, 264; fauna of, 235 ; hot spring in, 
82 ; soundings in the vicinity of, 265. 
Barringtonia racemosa, Bl., 124 

„ speciosa Forst, 124, 223, 229 
Basama Fort, 4 
Bassas de Pedro bank, 319 
Bats, frugivorous, in Narcondam and 
Barren Island, 236. 

Batti Malv, description of, 218 
Bauhinia acuminata, Linn., 34, 36 
,, buds used as food, 16 
Bay of Bengal, 253 
Bays, coral, 97 ; rocky, 100. 

Beach-flora of the Coco-group, 102; of 
Diamond Island, 55; of the Lacca¬ 
dives, 381. 

Beach-forests in the Cocos, 100. 
Belamcanda sinensis, Adans., 32 
Beliapani reef, 306 
Benincasia cerifera, Savi, 29 
Bergera Koenigii, Vahl, 331 
Berrya Amonilla, Roxb., 115 
Bibliography relating to the Laccadives, 
302 

Bidens hipinnata, Linn , 345 
„ pilosa Linn., 245 
Bird-introduced species in Barren Island, 
300; in Coco-group, 201; in the Lacca¬ 
dives, 382 ; in Narcondam, 300. 






Index. 


3 


Bii’ds of Narcondam and Barren Island, 
237 

Bitrapar, 307 

Bixa Orellana, Linn., 28, 36, 238 
Blachia andamanica, Hook., 6, 136, 289 
Blainvillea latifolia, Knrz., 38 
Blumea glonierata, DC., 41, 286 
„ laciniata, DC., 286, 344 

„ myriocephala, DC., 286 

„ virens, DC., 127 

Boehmeria malabarica, Wedd., 290 
Boerhaavia diffusa, Linn., 354 

„ procumhens. Banks, 354 

„ repens, Linn., 42,134,180, 232 

288, 354 

Boniiax anceps, Pierre, 280 
„ cambodiense, Pierre, 281 

„ insigne. Wall., 113, 279 

,, malabaricum, DC., 60, 280 

„ pentandrum, Linn., 280 

Bonnaya veronicaefolia, Benth., 38 
Bor-Abor tribes, 3 

Botanical visit to Little Andaman 
AND THE NiCOBARS, ON A, 216 
Botany oe the Laccadives, 301 
Bougainvillea glabra, Choisy, 36 
Bovista lilacina. Berk., 149 
Bragantia tomentosa, BL, 134 
Brabmapntra river, 2 
Brassica campestris, Linn., 28 
„ oleracea, Linn., 28 
Breynia oblongifolia, Mull.-Arg., 233 
„ rhamnoides, Muell-Arg., 289 
Bridelia Kurzii, Hook, f., 136 

,, tomentosa, BL, 65, 136, 233, 289 
Brownea, sp., 34 

Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lamk., 123, 223 
Bryophyllum calycinum, Salisb., 37 
Bryum coronatum, Schwaegr., 148, 297 
Buchnera asiatica, Linn., 351 
Buettneria andamanensis, Kurz., 115 
Burra Noon-pong, 79 
Butterflies of Narcondam and Barren 
Island, 242 
Byramgore reef, 306 
Cachar, Naga raids on, 4 
Caesalpinia Bonducella, Flem., 61, 121, 
233, 228, 284, 338. 

„ Bonduc, Kurz., 228 

„ Nuga, Ait., 122 

„ pulcherrima, Sw., 29 

Cajanus indicus, Spr., 29, 36 
Calamus andamanicus, Kurz., 142 
,, tigrinus, Kurz., 66, 142 
Galanthe veratrifolia, R. Br., 138 
Callicarpa arborea, Roxb., 288 
,, longifolia, Lamk, 231 
Caloenas nicobarica, Linn., 239 
Calophyllum hiophyllum, Linn., 112, 221, 
226, 279, 329 

Calothrix pulvinata, Ag., 152, 297 


Calothrix tasmanica. Kg., 297 
Calotropis gigantea, R. Br., 346 
Calymperes Dozyanum, Nutt. 

„ moluccense. Dozy & Molk, 376, 
Camellia theifera. Griff , 34 
Cananga odorata H. f. & T., 28 
Canarium euphyllum, Kurz, 116, 282 
Canavalia ensiformis, DC., 28, 61, 222, 
236 

„ gladiata, DC., 222 

„ lineata, DC., 223, 337 

„ obtusifolia DC., 121, 222, 337 

„ Stoclcsii. Dalz., 222 

„ turgida Grab., 222, 228, 284, 

336 

„ virosa, W. & A., 222 

Canna indica, Linn., 32, 36 
Cannabis sativa, Linn., 32 
Cansjera Rheedei, Gmel., 116, 283 
Cape Negrais, 53, 93 
Capellenia moluccana, T. & B., 358 
Capparis ambigua, Kurz, 226 

„ sepiaria, Linn., 59, 112, 279 

„ tenera, Dalz., 112, 279 

Capricornis bubalina, Linn., 12 
Capsicum frufescens, Linn., 31, 350 
,, grossum, Linn., 31 

,, minimum, Roxb., 31, 36, 64 

131, 180, 350. 

Car Nicobar, reefs of, 98, 218 
Carapa malaccensis, Lamk, 116, 221,1283 
,, obovata, BL, 116, 221 
Cardiospermum Halicaeabum, Linn., 37, 
333 

Carica Papaya, Linn., 29, 36, 125, 179, 
340 

Carrissa Carandas, Linn., 35 
Carpophaga aenea, Linn , 239 
„ bicolor. Scop., 2S9 

Carpopogon capitatum, Roxb., 336 
Carum Boxburghianum, Bentb., 30 
Caryota mitis, Lour., 291 
,. sobolifera. Wall., 141 
Cassia alata, Linn., 37, 61 
„ Fistula, Linn., 29 
„ occidentalis, Linn., 41, 228, 339 
,, Tora, Linn., 41, 339 
Cassytha filiformis, Linn., 135, 350 
Castalius, sp., 242 

Casuarina equisetifolia, Forst. 32, 36, 
225; distribution in tbe Andamans, 
218 

Catochrysops cnejus, Fabr., 243 
Caulerpa clavifera, Ag., 67, 152 
„ plumaris, Ag., 162 
Ceanothus asiaticus, Linn., 332 
Celastrus opposita, Wall., 331 
Celosia argentea, Linn., 39 
„ cristata, Linn., 32, 134 
Centipeda orbicularis. Lour., 38 
Cephalandra indica, Naud., 345 

409 





4 


Indeoc. 


Cephalostachyum pergracile, Munro, 35 
Ceratopteris thalictroides, Brogn., 43, 67 
147 

Cerhera Odollam, Gaertn , 123 
Ceriops, sp., 30 

Oeriops Candolleana, Arn., 123 
,, Roxburghiana, Arn , 123 
Chailletia gelonioides, Hook, f., 60 
Ghampereia Griffitliiana, Planch., 135 
Chara foetida, A. Br , 147 
„ sp., 379 

Cheilanthes tenuifolia, Sw., 43, 296 
Chemical character of bot-springs in 
Barren Island, 84 ; in Namba Forest, 
80 

Cherbaniani reef, 306 
Cheriapani reef, 306 
ChicJcrassia tahularis, A. Juss., 116 
Chinese Green-Dye, 89 ; pi’eparation of, 
92. 

Chitlac, 311 
Chloris barhata, Sw., 43 
Chonemorpha maerophylla, G. Don,, 129 
Chrysopogon aciculatum, Trin., 40 
Cicca disticha, Linn., 360 
Cicer Arietinum, Linn,, 28 
Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Breyn, 35 
Cirrepidesmus mongolicus, Pall., 239 
Cissus carnosa, Boxb., 333 
„ quadrangularis, Boxb., 333 
Citrullus vulgaris, Schrad., 29 
Citrus acida, Boxb., 331 
,, Aurantium, Linn., 332 
„ decumana, Linn., 28, 332 

„ medica, Linn., 28, 60, 331 

Civilized species, definition of, 177 
Claoxylon longifolium, Muell.-Arg., 133, 
233 

„ Mercurialis, Thw., 360 

,, molle, Endl., 233 

Classes of Andaman cultivated species 
35 

Clearings in the Coco group, 104; in 
Diamond Island, 54 
Cleome viscosa, Linn., 37, 328 
Clerodendron inerme, Gaertn., 65, 133 
224, 231, 288, 353 
„ paniculatum, Linn., 231 

Climate of Naga Hills, 2 
Clitoria Ternatea, Linn., 28, 36, 336 
Cnesmone javanica, BL, 137 
Cnestis ramijiora, Griff., 60 
Coast species in the Cocos, 188; in the 
Laccadives, 381. 

Coco GROUP, THE VEGETATION OF THE, 93 

Coco-nut trees in Barren Island, 270;_ 

in the Coco group, 183in Diamond 
Island, 57 ;—in the Laccadives, 364;— 
in Narcondam, 142 in the Nicobars, 
186, 218 ’ 
Cocos, the, 93; action of surf in, 98 • 

410 


beaches and beach vegetation of, 102 
bird-introduced species in; 177 ; clear¬ 
ings in, 104; distribution of species 
noted in, 190; fresh-water lagoons of, 
108; inland vegetation of, 103, 197; 
littoral species in, 189; marine plants 
of, 118; nature of flora of, 163; 
origin of flora of, 175; physical fea¬ 
tures of, 97; plants collected in. 111; 
position of, 93; products of, 110; 
reefs and reef-vegetation of, 97; rema¬ 
nent species in, 211 ; visits paid to, 
94; wind-introdnced species in, 197. 
Cocos nucifera, Linn., 33, 36, 66, 142, 181, 
233, 291, 364 
Coffea arabica, Linn., 35 
Coix Lachryma, Linn., 15, 17, 33, 36 
Collema nigrescens, Achar., 148, 297 
Collocalia Linchi, Horsf., 237 
Colocasia antiquorum, Sch., 35, 36, 370 
Cohibrina asiatica, Brogn., 60, 116, 283, 
332 

Commelina cristata, Linn., 364 
,, obliqua, Hossk., 140 
Connarus gibbosus. Wall., 60, 119 
„ sp., 228 

Convolvulus alsinoides, Linn., 349 
,, Batatas, Linn., 348 

„ dissectus, Linn., 348 

„ grandijiorus, Linn., f., 347 

„ parviflorus, Yahl, 131, 231, 

287, 348 

„ pes-caprae, Linn., 348 

Conyza cinerea, Linn., 344 
„ laciniata, Boxb., 314 
Cooling of hot spring in Barren Island, 
84 

Corchorus acutangulus, Lamk., 331 
„ fuscus, Boxb., 331 
Cordia subcordata, Lamk., 129, 224, 231 
Coreopsis, sp., 30 
Coriandrum sativum, Linn., 30 
Coronilla aculeata, Willd., 335 
Corvus Levaillanti, Less., 238 
Corypha elata, Boxb., 141 
„ Gebanga, Kurz., 141 

„ macropoda, Kurz., 141 

Cosmos sulphureus, Cass., 41 
Costus speciosus, Linn., 139 
Crater of Barren Island, ascent of, 266; 
column of steam from, 82; plants 
growing in, 268. 

Creeks in the Coco-group, 103 
Crepis acaulis. Hook., 6, 349 
„ japonica, Benth., 31 
Crinum asiaticum, Linn., 139, 225 
Crotalaria retusa, Linn., 40, 335 
„ sericea, Betz., 119, 178 

„ verrucosa, Linn., 40, 334 

Croton sublijratus, Kurz., 136 
Crustacea, (Land-) in Barren Island, 24 



Index. 


5 


Cucumis Melo, Linn., 29, 341 
„ sativus, Linn., 26, 341 

„ utilissimus, Roxb., 341 

Cucurhita maxima, Duch., 30, 341 
Cultivated plants in the Andamans, 28 ; 
the Coco group, 177; the Laccadives, 
380; the Naga Hills, 15. 

Cumuium Cyminum, Linn., 30 
Cuneuma leucogaster, Gmel., 237 
Cupania Jachiana, Hiern, 227 
Cuphea, sp., 29 
Curcuma, sp., 32 
Cyanotis cristata, R. & S., 364 
Cycas Bumphii, Miq., 138, 225, 233 
Cyclea peltata, H. F. & S., 59, 111, 125 
Cyclostemon assamicus. Hook., f., 136, 289 
„ macrophyllus, Bl., 289 
Cymaria acuminata. Dene., 248 
„ elongata, Bth., 249 
„ mollis, Miq., 248 
Cymodocea ciliata, Ehrenb., 144, 225, 234 
Cynanchun alatum, Prain, 347 

„ reticulatum, Willd., 347 
Cynodon Dactylon, Pers., 33, 36, 374 
Cynometra ramiflora, Linn., 122 
Cyperus compressus, Linn., 39, 370 
„ conglomeratus, Rottb., 371 
„ dilutus, Vahl., 144 

„ distans, Linn , f., 39 

„ dubius, Rottb., 371 

„ elegans, Linn., 144 

„ hyalinus, Vahl., 370 

„ Iria, Linn., 39 

„ pachyrrhizus. Nees, 370 
„ pennatus, Lamk., 66, 144, 234 
295, 370 

„ polystachyus, Rottb., 39,144, 370 
Daedalacanthus malaccensis, T. And., 35 
Dalbergia monosperma, Dalz., 284 
,, tamarindifolia, Roxb., 284 
Daldinia vernicosa, Cos. & de Not., 150 
Danais, sp., 46, 242 
Batura fastuosa, Linn., 31, 36, 291, 350 
Daucus Carota, Linn., 35 
Davallia solida, Sw., 146, 223, 295 

„ speluncae, Bak., 295 

Dedaelea concentrica, Pr., 149 
„ Jiabellum, Berk., 149 

„ quercina, Fr., 149, 297 

„ sanguinea, Kl., 149 

Beeringia celosioides R. Br., 35, 36 
Defences of Naga villages, 7 
Behaasia Kurzii, King, 135 
Bemiegretta sacra, Gmel, 240 
Bendrobium secundum. Wall., 138, 224 

„ tenuicaule. Hook., f., 225 

„ terminate. Par. & Reichb., f., 

225 

„ sp., 290 

Bendrocalamus strictus, Nees, 35, 146 
Bentella repens, Forst., 37, 342 


Deposit of sulphur in Barren Island, 82 
Berris scandens, Benth., 121, 223, 284 
„ sinuata, Benth., 121 
„ uiffiftaosa, Benth , 121, 223 
Derivation of Avifauna of Narcondam 
and Barren Island, 147 
Besmodium auricomum, Grah., 41 
,, laxiflorum, DC., 119 
„ polycarpon, DC., 41, 119, 284 
„ triflorum, DC., 37, 41, 120, 

J78, 336 

„ triquetrum, DC., 119 

„ umbellatum, DC., 61, 119 

Diamond Island Plants, a list of, 53 
Diamond Island, description of, 53; 
distribution of the flora of, 67; list of 
species in, 59 : position of, 53; previous 
notices of, 58 ; sketch of the vegetation 
of, 54; relation of Coco group to, 93 
Bictyota dichotoma, Lamour., 151 
Bioscorea bulbifera, Linn., 363 

„ glabra, Roxb., 66, 139, 291 

„ pentaphylla, Linn., 140 

,, sativa, Linn., 35, 291, 363 
Biospyros Kurzii, Hiern., 123, 230, 287 
Biplospora singularis, Korth., 126 
Biplerocarpus alatus, Roxb., 113 
„ Griffithii, Miq., 112 

,, pilosus, Roxb., 113 

Directions fob drying specimens of 

PLANTS FOR A HERBARIUM, 391 
Bischidia bengalensis, Kurz, 230 
„ Oriffithii, Hook, f., 230 
„ nummularia, R. Br., 129, 187 
„ Bafflesiana, Wall., 224 
Diseases among the Nagas, 23 
Dispersal of Tulsi plants, 65, 232, 353 
Distinction between indigenous and in- 
Produced species, difficulty of, 175 
Distortion caused by a fungus in Acacia 
eburnea, 88 

Distribution of butterflies and birds in 
Narcondam and Barren Island, 244;— 
of plants in Andamans (non-indigen- 
ous', 47; in Diamond Island, 67; in 
Laccadives, 383 

Bodonaea viscosa, Linn., 118, 283 
Bolichos Catjang, Linn., 338 
„ Lablah, Linn., 29 

„ lineatus, Thunb., 121, 223, 338 

„ luteus, Sw., 338 
„ obcordatus, Roxb., 337 
„ rotundifolius, Roxb., 336 
Domestic economy of Nagas, 18, 21 
Borites Wightii, Benth., 138 
Bracaena angustifolia, Roxb., 140, 225, 
291 

„ spicata, Roxb., 140 
Bracontomelum mangiferum, Bl., 118 
Bregea volubilis, Benth., 63 
Dress of Angami Nagas, 5 


411 




6 


Index. 


Drying herbarium specimens, 391 
Duranta Plumieri, Jacq., 31 
Durio Zibethinus, DO., 34 
Dyes, Naga, 18 
Echinocactus, sp., 30 
Eclipta alha, Hassk., 38, 344 
„ prostrata, Linn., 314 
Ehretia laevis, Roxb., 63 
Eiephantopus scaher, Linn., 38 
Eleusine aegyptiaca, Pers , 40, 146, 182, 
374 

„ Coracana, Gaertn., 374 

„ indica, Gaertn., 40, 67, 146, 182, 

374 

Elikalpeni bank, 318 
Ellipanthus sterculiaefolius, Prain, 60 
Endospermuun formicarium, Becc., 358 
,, moluccanum, Becc., 358 

Entada scandens, Benth, 61, 122, 284 
Epiphyllum, sp., 30 
Eragrostis plumosa, Link., 234, 374 
„ tenella, Trin., 374 

„ unioloides, Nees, 43 

Eranthemum album, Nees, 132 

„ cinnabarinum, Wall., 132, 

231 

„ succifolium, Kurz, 132, 231, 

288 

Eriochloa annulata, Nees, 40 
Eriodendron anfractuosum, DO., 114, 280 
Erioglossum edule, Bl., 118, 228, 283 
Erosive effects of surf, 99 
Erycibe paniculata, Roxb., 64,130 
Erythrina indica, Lamk., 61, 120, 222, 
228, 284 

Eudynamys malayana. Cab., 238 
Eugenia Jambolana, Linn., 285, 340 
„ Jambos, Linn., 35, 339 
Eulophia decipiens, Kurz, 234 
„ graminea, Lindl., 234 
Euonymus calocarpus, Kurz, 116 
Euphorbia antiquorum, Linn., 7, 13, 35 
„ Atoto, Forst., 136, 232, 359 
„ hirta, Linn., 359 
„ hypericifolia, Linn., 359 
„ parvijiora, Linn., 39, 136, 181, 
359 

„ pulcherrima, Willd., 32 
„ thymifolia, Burm., 39, 65, 355. 
Evolvulus alsinoides, Linn., 349 
„ angustifolius, Roxb , 349 

,, linifolius, Linn., 849 

Extension of Coco Island littoral species, 
196 

Fauna of Narcondam and Barren Is¬ 
land, Remarks on the, 235 
Feasts, Naga, 19 
Ficus bengalensis, Linn., 35, 361 
„ Benjamina, Linn., 137, 290, 361 
„ brevicuspis, Miq., 137, 290 
„ callosa, Willd., 137, 290 

412 


Ficus comosa, Lowe, 137 
,, Daemonam, Koen., 137, 233, 290 
„ gibbosa, Bl., 289 
„ glaberrima, BL, 289 
„ grisea. Wall, 138 
,, hispida, Linn, f ., 66, 137, 290 
„ indica, Linn., 361 
„ nervosa, Roth, 290 
„ nitida, Thunb., 137, 361 

„ religiosa, Linn., 35 

„ retusa, Linn , 137, 290, 361 
,, Rumphii, Vahl, 35, 66, 137, 233, 
290 

„ variegata, Bl. 290 
Fimbristylis diphylla, Vahl, 50, 144, 295, 
371 

,, ferruginea, Vahl, 145, 295 

,, miliacea, Vahl, 145 

„ quinqueangularis, Kunth., 

145 

Flacourtia sepiaria, Roxb., 328 
Flagellaria indica, Linn , 140, 225, 234 
Flat Rock, soundings in the vicinity of, 
271 

Flora of Narcondam and Barren Is¬ 
land, ON THE, 253 

Flowers used as ornaments by Nagas, 6 
Flueggia microcarpa, BL, 65, 136, 289 
Fresh-water lagoons in the Cocos, 108 
Fringing reefs in the Cocos, 98 
Fruits attached to feathers of birds, 205 
Galega diffusa, Roxb., 335 
Qallinula phoenicrura, Penn., 239 
Garcinia cornea, Linn., 60 

„ Mangostana, Linn., 34 
„ sp., 112 

Garuga pinnata, Roxb., 116, 282 
Gelidium corneum, Ag., 162 
Gelonium bifarium, Roxb., 289 
„ sp. 233 

“ Genna,” significance of the Naga term, 
19 

Geographical position of Barren Island, 
264; Coco group, 93; Diamond Island, 
53; Plat Rock, 270; hot springs in 
Namba Forest, 77 ; Laccadive Archi¬ 
pelago, 301 ; Naga Hills, 2; Narcon¬ 
dam, 256 

Geology of Naga Hills, 2 
Gilla-Poong, 79 

Girardinia heterophylla, Wedd., 7 
Glochidion calocarpum, Kurz, 233, 289 
Gloriosa superba, Linn., 140, 291, 368; 

distribution of, 195 
Glycine hirsuta. Max., 15 
Glycosmis pentaphylla, Corr., 115, 227, 
282 

Glyptopetalum calocarpum, Prain, 116 
„ zeylanicum, Thw , 117 

Goats in Narcondam and Barren Island, 
236 





Index. 


7 


Qom'phostemma dichotomum, A. DC., 249 
„ dichotoinum, Hassk., 249 

„ fiavescens, Miq , 249 

Oomphrena glohosa, Linn., 32, 36, 134, 
181 

Gossypium harhadense, Linn., 28, 36, 331 
„ herhaceum, Linn. 331 
Gouania leptostachya, Brogn., 283 
Gracillaria crassa, Harv., 152 
Graptophyllum hortense, Nees, 31 
Gratiola Monnieria, Linn., 357 
Great Coco, 95 

Green Dye, Chinese, 89 ; preparation of, 
92 

Grewia calophylla, Knrz, 116 
„ laevigata, Vahl, 115, 282 

,, Microcos, Linn., 115 

Guettarda speciosa, Linn., G2, 126, 223, 
229, 285, 342 

Guilandina Bonduc, Linn., 338 

„ Bonducella, Linn., 338 

,, Moving a, Linn., 334 

Gynandropsis'pentaphylla, DC., 226 
Gyrocarpus Jacquinii, Roxb., 124, 228, 
285 

Habit of Coco Group species, 155 
Habitat of Coco Group species, 158 
Halcyon atricapillus, Gmel., 238 
Halimeda discoidea, Dene, 226 

„ Opuntia, Lamonr., 152, 226 
Halophila ovalis, R. Br., 225 
Hebomoia Boepstorfii, Wood-Mason, 243 
Hedyotis minima, Burra., 41 
Heliotropium indicum, Linn., 38 

„ peruvianum, Linn., 30 
Hepatica, sp., 148 

Herbarium, Directions for drying 
SPECIMENS OF PL.\NTS FOR A, 391 
Heritiera littoralis, Dryand., 115, 282 
Hernandia ovigera, Gaertn., 356 
„ ovigera, Linn., 357. 

„ peltata, Meissn., 135,224, 232, 

356 

,, sonora, Linn., 357 

Herpestis Monnieria, H B. K., 351 
Heterophragma adenophylla. Seem., 65, 
132 

Heterotaxy in Acacia ehurnea, 89 
Hexagonia pergamenea. Berk., 149 
,, sericeo-Mrsuta, KL, 149 

„ similis. Berk., 67 

„ tenuis. Hook., 149 

Hibiscus Abelmosch^is, Linn., 113, 178 
„ esculentus, Linn., 34 

,, populneus, Linn., 330 

,, rosa-sinensis, Linn., 28, 330 

„ Sabdariffa, Linn., 34, 113, 178 

„ Bolandra, L’Her., 330 

„ tiliaceus, Linn., 60, 113, 221,226, 

279, 330 
Hippeastrum, sp., 32 


Hirneola polytricha, Mont., 67, 150, 297, 
377 

History of Andaman Settlement, 47; of 
Angami Nagas, 4 
Hot spring in Barren Island, 82 
Hot Springs of the Namba Forest in 

THE SiBSAGAR DISTRICT, UPPER AS¬ 
SAM, The, 77 
Houses, Naga, 7 
Houttuynia, used as food, 16 
Hoya diversifolia, Bl., 129, 287 
„ parasitica. Wall., 129, 287 
Hunting-customs, Naga, 12 
Huphina lichinosa, Moore, 244 
„ nama, Moore, 243 
HydnopTiytum andamanense, Becc., 223 
Hydrocotyle asiatica, Linn., 41 
Hydrolea Zeylanica, Vahl, 63 
Hydrosaurus salvator, Linn., 312, 240 
Hygrophila quadrivalvis, T. And., 42, 132 
Hyperanthera Moringa, Vahl, 334 
Hypertrophy in Acacia ehurnea, 88 
Hypolimnas bolina, Linn., 242 
Hyptis brevipes, Poit., 42 
Ichnocarpus frutescens, R. Br., 63 
Illigira Gonyzadenia, Meissn., 124 
Impatiens Balsamina, Linn., VS, 36 
Imperata cylindrica, Knnth, 42 
Indigenous and introduced species, 175 
Indigofera cordifolia, Heyne, 334 
„ tinctoria, Linn., 334 
Inland flora of the Cocos, 103; of Dia¬ 
mond Island, 67 

Introduction of Andamans non-indigen- 
ous plants, 45 

„ Laccadive plants, 383 

Ipomoea aquatica, Forsk., 41 

,, Batatas, Linn., 30, 130, 179, 348 
„ biloba, Forsk, 64, 131, 224, 231, 
287, 348 

„ Bona-nox, Linn., 30, 348 
„ coccinea, Linn., 35, 36, 130, 179 
„ cyinosa, R. & S., 231 
„ denticulaia, Choisy, 64,130, 224, 
231, 287, 348 

„ digitata, Linn., 64, 130 . 

,, grandijiora, Lamk, 64, 130, 287, 
347 

„ grandijiora, Roxb., 348 
„ Pes-capree, Roth, 348 
„ QuamocKt, Linn., 30, 36 
,, sinuata, Ortega, 348 
,, Turpethum, R. Br., 131, 287 
„ vitifolia, Sw., 287 
Ischsemum ciliare, Retz, 43, 146, 373 

„ muticum, Linn., 146, 234, 295, 

373 

„ repens, Roxb., 373 

„ rugosum, Nees, 43 
„ tenellum, Roxb., 373 
Ixias andamana, Moore, 423, 244 

413 



8 


Index. 


Ixora Bandhuca, Roxb., 342 

„ hrunnescens, Kurz, 126, 223, 229 
286 ’ 
„ coccinea, Linn., 35, 342 
„ cuneifolia, Roxb., 126, 229, 286 
„ grandifolia, Zoll. & Mor. 126 

,, paniculata, Lamk, 343 

„ Pavetta, Roxb., 343 
„ rugulosa, Wall., 62 
Jania tenella, Knetz., 151 
Japvo mountain, 2 
Jasminum, sp., 30 
Jatropha multifida, Linn., 32 
„ purgans, Linn., 32 
Jerry Island, 99 
Jussiaea suffruticosa, Lamk, 41 
Justicia hicalyculata, Vahl, 352 
„ Gendarussa, Linn, f., 31 
„ pectinata, Linn., 352 
Kachha Nagas, 3 
Kadamum, 313 
Kalpeni, 322 
Kiltan, 312 
Kohima, 3 
Konoma, 3 
Koradivb bank, 319 
Korati, 319 

EylUnga irevifolia, Rottb , 144, 181, 371 
„ monocephala, Rottb., 39 
Laccadive Archipelago, the 301; biblio¬ 
graphy of, 302; characters of flora of, 
377 ; cultivated species in, 380; list 
of islands in, 325 ; littoral species in, 
381; names of members of, 326; 
weeds in, 327 
Lagenaria vulgaris, Ser., 29 
Lagerstroemia calyculata, Kurz, 125 
„ Flos-Reginae, Retz, 62 

„ hypoleuca, Kurz, 35, 124 

„ sp., 125 

Lagoons in the Cocos, 108 
LampidSs elpis, Godart, 243 
Landfall Island, 93 
Lantana camara, Linn., 31, 36 
Launea nudicaulis, Less., 41 
,, pinnatifida, Cass., 345 
Lawsonia alba, Lamk., 29, 340 
,, inermis, Linn., 340 

„ spinosa, Linn., 340 

Leea grandifolia, Kurz, 227 
„ hirta, Roxb., 117 
„ parallela. Wall., 60 
„ sambucina, Willd., 117, 227, 283 
Lejeunea, sp., 148 
Lentinus leucochrous, Fr., 148 
Lenzites deplanata, Fr., 148 

,, suhferruginea. Berk., 148 
Lepidopetalum Jaclcianum, Radik., 227 
Lepraria, sp., 148 

Leptadenia reticulata, W. & A., 347 
Leptochloa. Jiliformis, R. Br., 40 

414 


Leptosia xiphia, Fabr., 243, 244 
Lepturus repens, R. Br., 475 
Lettsomia peguensis, 0. B. Clarke, 130 
Leucaena glauca, Benth., 29 
Leucas aspera, Spr., 354 
„ linifolia, Spr., 39 
Lhota Nagas, 3 

Limnanthemum aurantiacum, Dalz., 63 
„ indicum, Thw., 129 

„ parvifolium, Griseb., 63 

Limnophila conferta, Benth., 64 
Linaria ramosissima. Wall., 350 
Lippia geminata, H. B. K., 42 

„ nodiflora. Rich , 39, 133, 352 
Lithothamnion polymorphum, Aresch., 151 
Little Andamans and the Nicobaks, 
ON A botanical VISIT TO, 216 
Little Coco, 97 

Littoral species in the Cocos, 189 ; —Dia¬ 
mond Island, 54 ;—the Laccadives, 381 
Livistona Jenkinsiana, Griff., 141 
„ speciosa, Kurz, 141 

„ sp., 141 

Lizards in Narcondam, 240 
Lobelia frutescens, Linn., 346 
„ Taccada Gaertn., 346 
Lo-kao, the Chinese Green-Dye, Note 
ON, 89 

Loranthus longiflorus, Desr., 135 
Ludwigia parvifiora, Roxb., 37, 41 
„ prostrata, Roxb., 37 
Luffa aegyptiaca. Mill., 29, 36, 62, 340 
„ clavata, Roxb., 341 
,, pentandra, Roxb , 341 
„ racemosa, Roxb., 341 
Lumnitzera racemosa, Willd., 124 
Lupinus, sp., 28 

Lycopersicum esculentum. Mill., 30 
Lycopodium cernuum, Linn., 295 
Lygodium flexuosum, Sw., 67, 147 
Macaranga Tanarius, Muell-Arg., 66, 137, 
289 

Mallotus acuminatus, Muell -Arg., 136 
„ andamanicus. Hook , f., .136, 289 
„ Helferianus, Kurz, 136 
Mammalia of Narcondam, 235 
Mangifera indica, Linn., 28, 334 
Mangrove-swamps in the Cocos, 103 
Manipur and the Naga tribes, 4 
Maries, C., memorandum on plant-dry¬ 
ing, by, 403 

Marine flora of Coco group, 188; of 
Diamond Island, 54; of Little Anda¬ 
man, 

Marsh-plants of the Cocos, 203 
Masters, J. W., memorandum on Namba 
hot-springs by, 7l 
Mazus rugosus. Lour., 38 
Melaleuca Leucadendron, Linn., 35 
Melocactus, sji., 30 

I Melochia corchorifolia, Linn,, 40, 60 






Index. 


9 


Meloehia veluiina, Becld , 227 
Memecylon edule, Eoxb., 124, 299, 285 
Mercurialis alternifolia, Desv., 360 
Mezoneuron enneaphyllum, W. & A., 121 
Michelia Champaca, Linn., 28 
Micrococca Mercurialis, Benth., 360 
Microstachys Mercurialis, Dalz., 360 
Migrant species, 177 
MiLiusa, sp.. Ill 
Mimosa pudica, Linn., 37 
Mimusops littoralis, Kurz, 128, 224, 230 
Minikoi, 322 

Mirabilis Jalapa, Linn., 32, 36, 354 
Mitreola oldenlandioides. Wall., 287 
Modecca cardiophylla. Mast., 125 
„ cordifolia BL, 125 
Momordica Charantia, Linn., 39, 341 
„ dioica, Roxb., 39 

,, Lxzffa, Linn., 341 

„ monadelpha, Roxb., 341 

Monochoria vaginalis, Presl., 42 
Morinda bracteata, Roxb., 223, 229, 286, 
343 

„ citrifolia, Linn., 126, 223, 229, 

343 

Moringa pterygosperma, Gaertn., 28, 36, 
60, 118, 178, 334 
Mozama, 3 

Mucimia capitata, W. & A., 336 

„ gigantea, DO., 120, 223, 284 
„ monosperina, DC., 61 
„ pruriens, DO., 120, 336 
MuTcia scabrella, .Aa-n., 37, 229 
Murraya Koenigii, Spreng., 331 
Mxis rattiis, Linn., 236 
Musa sapientum, Linn., 32, 66, 139, 181, 
291, 362 

Mnsical powers of Nagas, 5 
Mussaenda calycina. Wall., 126 

„ macrophylla, Wall., 126, 229, 
285 

Myristica ghmca, B1, 65, 135, 288 
„ Irya, Gaertn., 135 
Nacadizba ccelestis, De Nicev., 242 
Nagas, the Angami, 1 
Namba Forest, in the Sibsagar Dis¬ 
trict, THE hot springs OF THE, 235 
Narcondam and Barren Island, on the 
FLORA OF, 253 Remarks on- the 
Fauna of, 235 

Narcondam, coco-nut trees in, 142, 291; 
description of, 256 

Nature of flora of Coco group, 153; of 
Laccadives, 377; of Narcondam and 
Barren Island, 297 
Nechera rugiilosa, Mitt, 296 
Nelumhium speciosum, Willd., 59 
Nepeta, on an undescribed Oriental 
Species of, 85 
Nepeta Bellevii, Brain, 85 
„ indica, Linn., 353 


Neplxelium Litchi, Camb., 34 
Nephrodium molle, Desv., 375 
Nephrolepis cordifolia, Presl., 375 
Nerium odormn, Sol., 30 
Nias Islands, 94 
Nicandra indica, R & S. 349 
Nicobars, on a botanical visit to 
^ Little Andaman and the, 216 
Nicobars, reefs in the, 98; relationship 
of Andamans to, 94; visits to, 220 
Nicotiana Tabacum, Linn., 31 
Non-indigenous species of the Anda¬ 
man Flora, the, 25 
Nostoc verrucosmn, Vauch., 77 
hlOTE ON Lo-KAO, the CHINESE GREEN- 
Dte, 89 

Note on some methods of preparing 
botanical specimens, 401 
Nyctanthes hirsuta, Linn., 342 
Nymphaea Lotus, Linn., 59, 111 
„ rubra, Roxb., Ill, 177 
Occupations of the Angami Nagas, 5 
Ochrosia borbonica, Gmel., 128,°224. 230 
346 > > > , 

Ocimum Basilicum, Linn., 65, 232, 353 , 

„ gratissimum, Linn., 65, 232, 353 
„ sanctum, Linn., 31, 36, 65, 232 
353 > ) ) , 

Odina Wodier, Roxb., 118, 284 
Oldenlandia bijlora, Linn., 342 
„ bijlora, Larak., 342 

corymbosa, Linn., 38, 229, 

285, 342 

„ crystallina, Linn , 41 

„ diffusa, Roxb., 41, 342 

„ paniculata, Linn., 41 

,, ramosn, Roxb., 342 

,, repens, Linn., 342 

Onychium auraturn, Kaulf., 296 
Ophiorrhiza Mungos, Linn , 229 
Oplismenus Burmanni, Beauv., 295, 71 

„ compositus, U. & S., S71 

Opuntia, sp., 30 

Oriental species of Nepeta, on an 
UNDESCRIBED, 85 

Origin of the Coco group Flora, 175;— 
Narcondam and Barren Island Flora 
300 

Ornaments of Angami Nagas, 6 
Ornithotrope Cobbe, Willd., 333 
Oroxijlum indicum. Vent.. 132, 288 
Oryza coarctata, Roxb., 372 
„ sativa, Linn., 33, 372 
Osbechia chinensis, Linn., 61 
Otocompsia emeria, Shaw, 238 
Oxalis corniculata, Linn., 37 
Pachyrhizus angulatus, Rich., 29 
Padina pavonia, Gaill., 67, 151, 226 
Padouk, 35 

Paederia foetida, Linn., 127, 229, 286 
Palaeornis affinis, Tytl, 238 


415 






10 


Index, 


Pancratium zeylanicum, Linn., -363 
Pa7iclanus odoratissimus, Linn, f., 143, 
225, 233, 233, 369 
Panicum Burinanni, Retz., 371 

,, ciUare, Eefcz., 4'', 145, 182, 371 

„ colonum, Linn., 40, 145, 182 

„ Dactylon, Linn., 374 

„ erucaeforme, Sibth., 4 2 

„ excurrens, Trin., 42 

„ filipes, Nees., 234 

„ Helopua, Trin., 145, 182 

,, javanicwn, Poir., 145 

,, jumentorum, Pers., 33 

„ lanceolatum, PoTih., S~I 

„ lo7igipes, W. & A , 142 

„ montanum, Roxb., 145 

„ muosuroides, R. Br., 42 

,, Myu7'us, Lamk., 145 

,, sanguinale, Linn., 40, 371 

,, verticillatum, Linn., 371 

Pantling, R., memorandum on plant 
drying by, 404 

Parishia insignia, Hook, f., 118 
Parsonsia spiralis, R. Br., 230 
Parthenos gamhrisius, Pabr., 243 
Paspalum distichum, Linn., 42 
„ filiculmum, Nees., 40 

„ pedicellatum, Nees., 42 

„ scrohiculatum, Nees., 40 

Passiflora laurifolia, Linn., 29 
Patkoi Mts., 2 

Pavetta indica, Linn., 62, 126, 343 
Pb;DICUL.4RIS, Two SPECIES OF, 251 
Pedicula7'is diffusa, Prain, 251 
„ Jlaccida, Prain, 252 

Pemphis acidula, Forst., 124 
Peniophora papyi-ina, Mont., 297 
Pentas cuomea, Bentb., 30 
Pei'illa ocimoides, Limi., 1 5 
Peristrophe acuminata, Nees, 133, 231 
„ hicalgculata, Nees, 352 

Petxmia violacea, Linn., 31 
Peucedanuxn graveolens, Benth., 30 
Phaseolus adenanthus, C. A. Mey., 284 
„ culcax-atus, Roxb , 338 
„ lunatus, Linn., 29 

„ Muxigo, Linn., 29 

„ trilobus, Ait., 34, 36 

„ sp , 120, 178 

Phaxjlopsis pa7-vijlo7'a, Willd., 42 
Phlehocalymna Lobhiana, Mast., 116 
Phlomis esculentus, Roxb., 354 
„ sp., 249 

Pholidota imhricata, Lindl, 139, 291 
Phyllanthus columnaris, Muell.-Arg., 136 
„ distichus, Muell.-Arg., 360 
„ Emhlica, Linn., 359 

„ longifolius, Jacq., 360 

„ onaderaspatensis, Linn., 359 

„ Nix'uri, Linn., 360 

, ohcox'datxLS, Willd., 359 


Phyllanthus reticulatus, Poir., 289 

,, rotu7idifolius, Klein, 360 
„ Urinaria, Linn., 42, 359 
Phyllochlamys spmosa. Bur., 137 
Physalis mixiima, Linn , 4l, 131, 288, 349 
„ Pex'uviana, Linn., 349 
Physcia leucoxnela, Michx., 376 
„ obscxira. Fries, 148, 376 
„ sp., 148 

Physiography of Barren Island, 81, 264, 
273; of the Coco-Group, 97; of Nar- 
condam, 256, 273 
Physique of Angami Nagas, 5 
Piper Betle, Linn., 32, 366 
,, caninum, BL, 135 
Piptunis velutixius, Wedd., 233, 290 
Pirmalpar, 808 
Pisonia aculeata, Linn., 134 

„ alba. Span., 232, 284, 355 
,, excelsa, Bl., 134, 232, 2(48 
„ inex-mis, Forst., 355 
Pisum sativum, Linn., 28 
Pithecolobium dulce, Renth., 34, 36 
,, 8a77ia7i, Benth., 34, 36 

Piti Sandbank, 318 
Plantain in Narcondam, The, 292 
Plantago major, Linn , 32 
Plants collected in the Cocos, 111; Dia¬ 
mond Island, 59; Laccadives, 328 ; 
Little Andaman, 221 ; Narcondam and 
Barren Island, 279 ; Nicobars, 226 
Plecospermum axidamanicxim. King, 137 
Plectocomia assamica, Griff., 7 
Pleurostijlia Wightii, W. & A., 332 
Pleurotus cuneatus. Mass., 376 

„ tenuissimxis, Jungh., 376 

Phichea indica. Less., 127, 286 
Plumbago rosea, Linn., 30 

„ zeylanica, Linn., 346 

Plumdex'ia acxitifolia, Poir., 30 
Poa pluxnosa, Retz., 374 
,, te7iella, Linn., 374 
Pogoxiathex-um sacchax-oideum, Beauv., 295 
PoMi.cia?iareym, Boj., 34 
Polity, Naga, 16 
Pollia Aclisia, Hassk., 291 
„ zorzogonexxsis, Endl., 140 
Polygala ex-ioptera, DC., 329 
„ Vahliana, DC , 329 
Polygonum used as food, a, 16 
Polygonum baxhatuxn, Linn., 39, 134, 356 
„ rivulare, Koen., 356 
Polypodiuxn adxxascexis, Sw., 147, 226, 234, 
296 

„ ix'ioides, Lamk., 147, 296 

„ phxjmatodes, Linn., 234 

„ quex’cifolium, Linn., 147, 226, 

234, 296 

Polypox'us australis, Fr. 149, 297 

„ gramxnatocephalus, Berk., 149 

„ fxdvus, Fries, 149 


416 





Index. 


11 


Polyporus igniarius, Fries, 376 
,, occidentalis, Berk., 67 

„ sanguineus, Fries, 149, 376 

„ xanthopus, Fries, 149, 297 
Pometia tomentosa, Kurz, 118 
Pongamia glabra, Vent., 61, 121, 223, 284 
Popowia parvifolia, Kurz, 226 
Portulaca oleracea, Linn., 37, 329 
,, PortuJacastum, Linn., 341 

„ quadrifida, Linn., 37 

„ tuberosa, lloxb ,329 

Pathos scandens, Linn , 144', 295 
Pouzolzia alienata. Gaud., 362 
„ indica. Gaud., 362 

Premna integrifolia, Linn., 65, 133, 224, 
231, 288, 353 

„ obtusifolia, R. Br. 133 

„ serratifolia, Linn., 353 

„ spinosa, Roxb., 353 

„ sp., 133 

Prenanthes acaulis, Roxb., 345 

„ asplenifolia, Roxb., 345 
Preparis, 93 

Products of Coco Islands, 110 
Prolification of flower-buds in Acacia 
eburnea, 89 

Psidium Guajava, Linn., 29, 339 
,, pomiferus, Linn , 339 

,, pyriferus, Linn., 339 

Psilostegise, 87 

Psilotum triquetrum, Sw., 295, 376 
Pteris biaurita, Linn., 296 
,, longifnlia, Linn., 296 
Pterocarpus indicus, Willd., 35, 121 
Pueraria Candollei, Grab., 121 

„ phaseoloides, Benth., 61, 121 
Punica Granatum, Linn., 29, 340 
Fyenmah, Andamanese, 35 
Quisquulis indica, Linn., 29 
Rain-tree, origin of name, 35; rate of 
growth of, 34 

Bandia longijiora, Lamk., 126 
Raphanus sativus, Linn., 28 
Rate of cooling of spring in Barren 
Island, 84 

Rats in Narcondam and Barren Island, 
235 

Rauwoljia serpentina Benth., 128 
Ravenala madagascariensis, Adans , 35 
Reefs, coral, 97; sandstone, 100 
Regma Nagas, 3 
Religion, Naga, 18 
Remanent species in the Cocos, 213 
Remarks on the Fauna of Narcondam 
AND Barren Island, 235 
Reptiles in Narcondam and Barren 
Island, 240 

Bhamnus catharticus, Linn., 90 
„ chlorophorus. Dene, 90 

„ davuricus, Pall., 89 

„ globosus, Bunge, 90 


Rhamnus persicus, Boiss, 90 

„ utilis. Dene, 89 

„ virgatus, Roxb., 90 

„ sp., 90 

Rhizophora conjugata, Linn., 123 
„ mucronata, Lamk., 103 
Rhus Cobhe, Linn., 333 
Rhyticeros Narcondami, Hume, 238 
Rhytisma, sp., 150, 297 
Ricinus communis, Linn., 32, 36, 360 
Bondeletia speciosa, Lodd., 30 
Roots of Avicennia, aerial, 54 
Rosa, sp., 29 

Rottboellia exaltata, Linn., 42 
Budbeckia, sp., 30 
Ruellia prostrata. Poir., 351 
„ ringens, Roxb., 351 
Ruvgia linifolia, Nees., 352 

,, parvijlora, Nees, 39, 132,180, 352 
„ pectinata, Nees, 352 
Russellia juncea, Zucc., 31 
Rutland Island, 94; reefs of, 98 
Sacchurum officinarum, Linn., 33, 373 
Salacia prinoides, DC., 117 
Sapindus Danura, Voigt, 118 
Saponuria Vaccarin, Linn., 37 
Saraca indica, Linn., 34 
Sarcanthus, sp., 234 
Sarcolobus globosus, Wall., 129 
Sarcostigma edule, Kurz, 116 

„ Wallichii, Baill., 116 
Sargassum ilicifolium, Ag., 151, 226, 235 
Sceevola Koenigii, Vahl, 62, 127, 230, 
286, 316 

., Tacenda, Roxb., 346 
Schizophyllum commune. Fries, 376 
Scindapsus officinalis, Schott., 66, 144 
Scirpus articulatus, Linn , 67 
,, miliaceus, Roxb., 371 

,, subulatus, Vahl., 145 

Scoparia dulcis, Linn., 39, 65, 131, 180 
Sea of Bengal, 253 

Seeds, introduction of, by birds, 202,206, 
211; by sea, 189; by winds, 197 
Selnginella pronijiora, Bak., 43 
Serna Nagas, 3 

Semecarpus heterophylla, Bl., 118, 228, 
284 

„ subpandurseformis. Wall., 
118 

Senna occidentalis, Roxb., iJ39 
,, Tora, Roxb., 339 
Serratula cinerea, Roxb., 344 
Sesamum indicum, DC., 41 
Seshan grandijiorus, Poir., 335 
Sesbania aculeata, Pers., 335 

„ grandijlora, Pers., 28, 335 
Sesostris bank, 319 

Sesuvium Portulacastrum, Linn., 125, 341 
Setaria verticillata, Beauv., 371 
Sida acuta, Burm., 112, 226 


417 



12 


Index. 


Sida carpinifoUa, Linn., 37, 178 
„ Mimiiis, Wind., 329 
„ indica, Linn., 330 
„ populifolia, Lamk., 330 
,, rhomhifolia, Linn., 40 
Sideroxylon ferrugineiim, H. & A., 286 
Simalu Island, 94 

Siphonocladon filiforme, De Toni., 152 
Siphonodon celastrineus, Griff., 117 
Slipper Island, 94 
Smilax macrophylla, Roxb., 66, 140 
Smithia sensitiva, Linn., 41 
Solanum ferox, Linn.,‘dl, 41 
„ indicum, Linn., 31, 41 

,, Melongena, Linn., 31, 36, 131, 

180,231 

„ nigrum, Linn., 38, 41 

„ stramonifolmm, Roxb., 349 

„ torvum, Sw., 31, 38 

„ xanthocarpum, Sw., 38, 41 

Solfataras in Barren Island, 12 
Sonchus arvensis, Linn., 41 
Sopliora tomentosa, Linn ., 121, 228 
Sorghum vulgare, Pers , 374 
Soroo Noon-Poong, 78 
Sphenocleu zeylanica, Gaertn., 62 
Spilanthes oleracea, Kurz, 38 
Spmifex squarrosus, Linn., 372 
Spondias mangifera, Willd., 118 
Sporoholus diander, Trin., 40 
Stachytarpheta indica, Vahl, 31, 36, 352 
Stephegyne diversifolia, H. f., 62, 126 
Ste^'culia alata, Roxb., 115 

„ campanulata, Roxb., 115 

„ colorata, Roxb., 115 

„ panijiora, Roxb., 115 
„ ruliginosa. Vent, 115,221, 227, 
: 282 

„ villosa, Roxb., 114 
Stereum cyathiforme. Fries, 67 
Sternula melanauchen, Tenim., 240 
Striga lufea. Lour, 41, 351 
Strobilanthes, used as a dye, a 18 
Strobilanthes phyllostachyus, Kurz, 132 
Strophanthus Wallichii, A. DC., 129 
■Strychnos acuminata. Wall., 230, 287 
Subelipar reef, 310, 384 
Sulphur deposits in Bari’en Island, 82 
Sumatra, 94 

Suriana maritima, Linn., -332 
Surf, effects of, 98 
Swietenia macrophylla. King, 34 
„ Mahogani, Linn., 34 
Sylvestrian species, 187 
Synedrella nodiflora, Gaertn., 38 
Synonymy of Anthocoma flavescens, 
ZolL, The, 241 

Synoptic view of Coco groiip flora, 215 j 
of Laccadive flora, 378 
Systematic nature of Coco group flora, 
153 ; of Laccadive flora, 279 

418 


Tahernsemontana crispa, Roxb., 63, 129 
Table Island, 94 

Taccca pinnatifida, Forst., 139, 363 
Tagetes, sp., 30, 36 

Tamarindus indica, Linn, 34, 61, 122, 
179, 339 
Tangaro, 309 
Tangkal Nagas, 3 
Tectona grandis, Linn, f., 35 
Temperature of Spring in Barren Island, 
83 ;—of springs in Namba Forest, 78 
Tephrosia pumila, Pers., 335 
„ purpurea, Pers , 335 

,, tenuis. Wall., 335 

Teratologicae effects produced on 
Acacia eburnea, Willd., by .ZEcididm 
ESCULENTOM, BarcL, 87 
Terminalia hialata, Kurz, 124 

„ Catappa, Lamk , 61, 123, 223, 
228, 284, 339 
„ procera, Roxb., 124 
Thelephora incrustans, Pers., 149, 297 
Thespesia populnea, Corr., 60, 113, 221, 
226, 279, 530 

Thevetia neriifolia, Juss., 30 
Thread-blight in the Andamans, 150 
Thuarea sarmentosa, Pers , 146, 372 
Thunbergia alata, Boj., 35, 36 
„ erecta, T. And., 35 
„ laurifolia, Lindl., 65, 132 
Thysanolsena acarifera, Nees, 295 
Topography of Diamond Island, 53 
Torenia, sp., 35, 36 

Tournefortia urgentea, Linn, f., 130, 224, 
231, 347 

Traditions of the Nagas, 3 
Tragia Mercurialis, Linn., 360 
Trametes Muelleri, Berk., 376 
Trema amboinensis, BL, 289 
Trichomanes pyxidiferum, Linn., 295 
Trichosanthes anguina, Linn., 29 

,. cucumerina, Linn., 29, 36 

„ palmata, Roxb., 125, 229, 

285 

Tridax procumhens, Linn., 41 
Tringoides hypoleucus, Linn., 239 
Triphasia trifoliata, DC., 227 
Trimnfetta rhomhoidea, Jacq., 40 
Tulsi plants, dispersal of the, 65, 232, 
353 

Turbinaria ornata, Ag., 151, 226 
Two Species of Pedicularis, 251 
Tylophora asthmatica, W. & A., 347 
„ globifera. Hook, f., 287 
Urena lobata, Linn., 60, 113, 178, 226 
,, sinuata, Linn., 330 
TJrtica suffruticosa, Roxb., 362 
Valonia confervoides, Harv., 152 
„ fastigiata, Harv., 152 
„ sp., 152 

Vandellia Crustacea, Benth., 38, 65 288 





Index. 


J3 


Vaucheria, sp., 152 

Vegetable products of the Cocos, 110 
Vegetation of the Coco Group, the, 
93 

Ventilago calyculata, Tul.ll? 

Verbena Aubletii, Liun., 31 
,, indica, Linn., 352 
„ nodifiora, Linn., 352 
Verbesina calendulacea, Linn., 345 
,, Lavenia-dlba, Linn., 345 
„ scandenti, Koxb , 345 
Vernonia cinerea, Less , 38, 62, 127, 179. 
344 

Vigna Catjang, Endl., 29, 338 

„ lutea, A. Gr., 121, 223, 284, 338 
Villages, Naga, 7 
Vinca rosea, Linn., 30, 36 
Vitex Negundo, Linn., 65, 133 
„ pubescens, Vahl, 133 
,, trifolia, Linn., 31 , 36 
„ Wimberleyi, Kurz, 133 . 

Vitis carnosa. Wall., 117, 283, 333 
„ lanceolaria, Eoxb., 283 
„ pedata. Wall., 117, 2'i7 
„ pentagona. Wall., 117 


Vitis quadrangtUaris, Wall., 333 
„ repens, W. & A., 283 
Vittariii elongata, Sw., 147 
War-customs, Naga, 10 
Weapons, Angami, 8 
Webera Kurzii, Hook, f., 126, 223, 229 
Wedelia calendulacea. Less., 41, 345 
„ scandens. C. B. Clarke, 127, 224, 
230, 286, 346 

Weeds of Andamans, 37 ; of Cocos, 177 ; 

of Laccadives, 380 
Willughbeia edulis, Eoxb., 63 
Wind-introduced species of Barren 
Island, 300; of Cocos, 197 ; of Lac¬ 
cadives, 382 ; of Narcondam, 300 
Wollastonia Horsfieldiana, Miq., 346 
„ insularis, DC., 354 
Xylaria clavarioides. Mass., 150 
Zanichellia palustris, Linn., 144, 375 
Zea Mays, Linn., 33 
Zephyranthes, sp., 32 
Zingiber cwollinum, Hance., 139 
„ sp., 139 

Zinnia elegans, Linn., 30, 36 
Zizyphus OenopUa, Mill., 117 


L 


419 

















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